0. A level Forensic Psychology

Question 1

What is offender profiling?

Answer 1

A method of working out the characteristics of an offended by examining the characteristics of the crime and crime scene

Question 2

What is an organised type of offender?

Answer 2

This type of offender commits a planned crime, may engage in violent fantasies with the victim, and is high in intelligence and social competency.

Question 3

What is a disorganised type of offender?

Answer 3

The crime scene is left with many clues such as fingerprints, there is little evidence of engagement with the victim, and the offender has lower intelligence and competence.

Question 4

Describe the process involved in top-down profiling.

Answer 4

1 Data assimilation - The profiler reviews the evidence
2 Crime scene classification - as either organised or disorganised
3 Crime reconstruction - Hypothesise about the sequence of events and what happened.
4 Profile generation -hypothesise about the likely offender

Question 5

Describe an organised crime scene.

Answer 5

• Little forensic evidence
• Body usually found elsewhere, or not at all
• Killer maintained control throughout
• Pre-Meditated
• Often a trophy is taken

Question 6

Describe a disorganised crime scene.

Answer 6

• Impulsive, unplanned
• Lots of forensic evidence
• Hurried
• Little control from the offender.

Question 6

Who developed the bottom-up approach?

Answer 6

David Canter

Question 7

What are the two main processes involved in bottom-up profiling.

Answer 7

1) Investigative Psychology
2) Geographical profiling

Question 8

What are the three main features of investigative psychology?

Answer 8

• Interpersonal coherence
• Forensic awareness
• Smallest space analysis

Question 9

What is interpersonal coherence?

Answer 9

People are often consistent/coherent. So, we should look for parallels between how a person commits their crimes and how they are likely to live their live, eg an aggressive crime is likely committed by an aggressive persom

Question 10

What is forensic awareness?

Answer 10

The extent to which the criminal seemed to be aware of forensic science may be relevant

Question 11

What is smallest space analysis?

Answer 11

A statistical technique used to identify key themes and categories in a crime

Question 12

What are the three main themes in smallest space analysis.

Answer 12

• Instrumental opportunistic
• Instrumental Cognitive
• Expressive compulsive.

Question 13

Who discovered the three main themes of smallest space analysis?

Answer 13

Canter and Salfati (1999) analysed 82 UK murder cases and found these themes.

Question 14

What is the “instrumental opportunistic” category?

Answer 14

The murder was used to obtain something or accomplish a goal, but the offender took the easiest options and was opportunistic

Question 15

What is the “instrumental cognitive” category?

Answer 15

it was instrumental (like imstrumental opportunistic) but the offender was more planned

Question 16

What is the “expressive compulsive” category?

Answer 16

The murder was carried out in the heat of the moment, sometimes provoked

Question 17

What is geographical profiling?

Answer 17

-The locations of crimes are a significant clue not in terms of who committed them, but where the offender is based.
-This involves using circle theory and Criminal Geographic Targeting (CGT)

Question 18

Describe circle theory?

Answer 18

Canter & Larkin (1993) found that offenders tend to carry out their crimes within a distinct radius. However, they differ in terms of where that radius is. They categorise offenders into either marauder or commuter offenders

Question 19

Describe a marauder offender.

Answer 19

Marauder offenders will commit crimes within a distinct radius around their home

Question 20

Describe a commuter offender.

Answer 20

Commuter offenders will commit crimes within a distinct radius of a place that is familiar to them, even if miles away from their homes

Question 21

What is Criminal Geographic Targeting?

Answer 21

• A more technologically-advanced version of Circle theory. Rather than showing one circle in which the offences took place, it takes into account more factors like time the crime took place and movement to and from the scene
• This creates an image known as a ‘jeopardy surface’ (or ‘probability map’) so that profilers can narrow down their search area even further

Question 22

What are the three personality spectra involved in Eysenck’s personality inventory?

Answer 22

Introversion-extraversion
Stable-Neurotic
Psychotism-Normality

Question 23

What is introversion/extraversion?

Answer 23

The extent to which you seek new experiences and social contact. Introverts perfer their own company and routine, extraverts prefer socialising and get bored quickly

Question 24

What is stable/neurotic?

Answer 24

The extent to which your mood and emotions are consistent. Neurotics tend to be emotionally unstable and unpredictable compared to stable people

Question 25

Describe a psychotic character

Answer 25

Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal and lacking in empathy

Question 26

What is extraversion believed to be caused by?

Answer 26

An under-stimulated nervous system - these people need more stimulation so they seek external stimuli. Introverts have over-stimulated nervous systems so prefer calm.

Question 27

What is neuroticism believed to be caused by?

Answer 27

Neuroticism is affected by how sensitive and reactive your nervous system is (fight or flight)

Question 28

What is psychoticism believed to be caused by?

Answer 28

Psychoticism is caused by excessive amounts of testosterone, which promotes competitive and aggressive behaviour

Question 29

Give some evaluation of circle theory.

Answer 29

+Canter and Larkin (1993) studied 45 sexual assaults and was able to distinguish between marauders and commuters.
- However, 91% of the offenders were identified as marauders, meaning the classification isnt very useful
- Petherick (2006) outlined that if a criminal’s home base is not actually at the centre of the circle, this means that police may look in the wrong place. Also patterns may not always be curcles, but perhaps ellipse.

Question 30

Give some evaluation of geographic profiling.

Answer 30

+Rossmo (1999) claims that while it may not solve crimes, it can be useful in prioritising house-to-house sesrches or identifying a geographical area where DNA could be collected.

• However, it cant distinguish between multiple offenders in the same area, and is limited to spatial behaviour.
• Vancouver Police department ceased using geographic profiling as they did not feel it emhanced policing outcomes (Turvey 2011)

Question 31

Give some evaluation of investigative psychology.

Answer 31

Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces using investigative psychology and found that over 75% of the police officers auestioned said that profilers’ advice had been useful

• However, only 3% said that the advice had helped identify the actual offender.
• In Copson’s study, the maximum number of crimes per year where profiling was used was only 75 cases, showing how little it is used.

Question 32

Describe the scientific basis for the bottom-up approach.

Answer 32

+Bottom-up is more scientific than top-down as it uses objective statistical techniques and computer analysis.

• However, such techniques are only as good as the data that is input and the underlying assumptions used to work out links between data items.
• The data used to drive such systems is only related to offenders who have been caught, and therefore tells us little about patterns of behaviour related to unsolved crimes.

Question 33

What issue is there with the basis of the top-down approach.

Answer 33

The original data on classification is based from interviews with 36 of the most dangerous and sexually motivated murderer, and was used to identify the key characteristics that would help police “read” a crime scene. This is an issue as these individuals are not likely to be the best source of reliable information (as they are highly manipulative).

Question 34

What genetic research support is there for eysenck’s personality explanation?

Answer 34

+Zuckerman (1987) found a +.52 / +.24 correlation for MZ/DZ twins on neuroticism and +.51 / +.12 for MZ/DZ on extra version

Question 35

Give the research support for link between personality and criminal behaviour

Answer 35

+Dunlop (2012) found that extraversion and psychoticism were good predictors of offending behaviour.
- but Van Dam found that very few male offenders scored highly on all 3 scales – lacks predictive validity.

Question 36

What do cognitive psychologists assume is the cause of offending behaviour?

Answer 36

Offenders have faulty, biased and irrational thoughts that cause them to commit their offences, known as cognitive distortions

Question 37

Give two examples of cognitive distortions.

Answer 37

• Hostile attribution bias
• Minimalisation

Question 38

What is hostile attribution bias?

Answer 38

Offenders are more likely to perceive normal / neutral behaviours from others as aggressive, leading to them reacting aggressively as a response.

Question 39

What is Minimalisation?

Answer 39

Offenders tend to under exaggerate the severity of their crimes in order to make themselves feel less guilty/conscious about their crimes.

Question 40

What did Kohlberg theorise about offenders?

Answer 40

That offenders tend to be underdeveloped on the levels of moral reasoning, and are more likely to be in the pre-conventional stage

Question 41

Give the three levels of moral reasoning (from lowest to highest).

Answer 41

• Pre-conventional level
• Conventional
• Post-Conventional

Question 42

Describe the characteristics of a person in the pre-conventional stage of moral reasoning.

Answer 42

Rules are obeyed either to avoid punishment or for personal gain.

Question 43

Describe the characteristics of a person in the conventional stage of moral reasoning.

Answer 43

Rules are obeyed for approval or to maintain the social order

Question 44

Describe the characteristics of a person in the post-conventional stage of moral reasoning.

Answer 44

Rules are obeyed if they are impartial, and are challenged if they infringe on others’ rights, or the person creates their own set of rules according to their ethical principles.

Question 45

Give a limitation of Kohlberg’s theory for offending behaviour.

Answer 45

It concerns moral thinking rather than behaviour. Krebs and Denton (2005) suggest that moral principles are only one factor in behaviour and may be overridden by practical factors, such as making financial gains.

Question 46

Who created the differential association theory for offending behaviour

Answer 46

Edwin Sutherland

Question 47

What is the differential association theory for offending behaviour?

Answer 47

This is the theory that criminals learn to become criminals through their interactions with others. This is most often learnt from close relationships, i.e. friends and family
In other words: Social Learning

Question 48

According to differential association theory, what two factors lead to criminal activity.

Answer 48

• Pro criminal attitudes
• Learning specific criminal acts.

Question 49

What are pro-criminal attitudes?

Answer 49

Offenders are taught certain values, such as to view certain crimes (such as theft) as acceptable and others (such as violence) as not. Learning more pro-criminal attitudes leads to offending behaviour.

Question 50

What is involved in learning specific criminal acts.

Answer 50

Offenders are taught the best way to commit crimes, eg thieves learn how to identify good houses to burgle.

Question 51

How is Differential association theory more useful than genetic explanations for offending behaviour ?

Answer 51

+DAT gives us a more realistic way of preventing crime and treating criminals than genetic explanations. Instead of focusing on genetics, which would be almost impossible to treat currently, crime prevention programs can focus on socialising children from pro-crime communities.
-However, this could be socially sensitive as it is labelling certain communities as having bad moral principles.

Question 52

How is differential association theory a more complete explanation for offending behaviours than alternatives?

Answer 52

+ DAT helps us to understand middle- class ‘white collar’ crime, such as tax evasion. Previous theories (eg the atavistic form theory) saw criminals as an underclass of their own. DAT can explain corporate crimes, as the product of pro-crime corporate culture.
-But this could take moral responsibility away from people who commit white collar crime, and instead blame the corporate culture rather than individuals

Question 53

Describe the Mednick (1984) study going against differential association theory?

Answer 53

Mednick (1984) found that boys with criminal biological fathers who were raised by non-criminal adoptive fathers were more likely to commit crime than those whose biological fathers were non-criminals.

• This suggests there is a genetic influence on offending behaviour.
• This goes against DAT as it shows that criminality may be not social.

Question 54

What do psychodynamic psychologists suggest is the cause of offending behaviour?

Answer 54

They suggest that offending behaviour is the result of an inadequate superego, which is caused by issues with the upbringing of the offender during the phallic stage.

Question 55

What 3 different types of superego did Blackburn suggest cause offending behaviour?

Answer 55

• A weak superego
• A deviant superego
• An overly-harsh superego

Question 56

Describe how the weak superego leads to offending behaviour.

Answer 56

If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot identify with them, and therefore their superego is underdeveloped and will not be able to stop impulsive thoughts by the Id, leading to certain crimes such as burglary.

Question 57

Describe how the deviant superego leads to offending behaviour.

Answer 57

If the morals and values that the child learns are deviant (eg they are taught pro crime attitudes), then this leads to offending behaviour such as burglary.

Question 58

Describe how the over-harsh superego leads to offending behaviour.

Answer 58

If the child is taught to feel excessive amounts of guilt for the smallest transgressions, their superego will be overly harsh. This could build up over time to create an unbearable amount of shame and guilt, which then manifests in violent outbursts of extreme criminal acts.

Question 59

Describe the maternal deprivation theory to offending behaviour.

Answer 59

Bowlby (1944) argued that healthy development was dependent on a warm, continuous relationship with a mother figure. Failure to form one of these relationships could lead to social and emotional issues, such as the development of an affectionless psychopathic personality, which is characterised by a lack of guilt, feelings and empathy for others.