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AHMB1 > 6: Reproductive Biology > Flashcards

6: Reproductive Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the urethra?

A

The tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body during urination. In males, it also carries semen during ejaculation

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2
Q

Compare the male and female urethra.

A

Urethra is longer in males and carries both urine and semen, shorter and only carries urine

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3
Q

List the components of the female reproductive tract.

A

Ovaries
Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes)
Fimbriae
Uterus
Cervix
Cervical canal
Vagina

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4
Q

What is the ovary?

A

Almond-shaped female gonads
Glands that produce eggs (ova) and hormones like oestrogen and progesterone
Lies in the lateral pelvic wall

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5
Q

What are the uterine tubes?

A

Fallopian tubes
Tubes that transport the egg from ovary to uterus
Fertilisation usually occurs here
Convoluted areas to slow down release of the egg so it can be fertilised

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6
Q

What are fimbriae?

A

Finger-like projections at the end of Fallopian tubes that help sweep the egg into the tube

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7
Q

What is the uterus?

A

Muscular organ where a fertilised egg implants and a foetus develops
Made up of the fundus, the body, and the cervix

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8
Q

What is the cervix?

A

The narrow, lower part of the uterus that contracts during childbirth

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9
Q

What is the cervical canal?

A

The passage within the cervix that allows flow of menstrual blood out and sperm in

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10
Q

What is the vagina?

A

A muscular canal that receives the penis during intercourse
Serves as the birth canal, and allows menstrual flow to exit

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11
Q

What is the vulva?

A

External female genitalia
Includes labia, clitoris and vaginal opening

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12
Q

What is the clitoris?

A

Small, sensitive organ
Important for sexual pleasure

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13
Q

What is the labia?

A

Folds of skin (labia majora and minora)
Protects the external genital organs

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14
Q

What are the different types of ovarian follicle?

A

Primordial follicle
The earliest stage
Single layer of flat cells around an immature oocyte

Primary follicle (pre-antral)
Oocyte grows, surrounding cells become cuboidal and divide

Secondary follicle (pre-antral)
Enlarged, fluid-filled spaces begin to form between the cells

Tertiary
A large fluid-filled cavity forms
Continues to grow

Graafian
Fully mature
Ready to release the oocyte during ovulation

Atretic follicle
Follicle that degenerates and dies instead of maturing

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15
Q

What is the antrum?

A

Fluid-filled cavity within a follicle

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16
Q

What are granulosa cells?

A

Cells within the ovarian follicle that surround oocytes, release fluid that helps with the nourishment and development of the oocyte and produce oestrogen

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17
Q

What is the corpus luteum?

A

Develops from the remnants of the mature follicle and secretes progesterone which helps to maintain the uterine lining for a potential pregnancy

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18
Q

What are the three layers of the uterine wall?

A

Endometrium: innermost layer, sheds every month with menstruation (made of the basal and functional layer, functional is the one that sheds during menstruation)

Myometrium: thick, muscular layer, produces cramps and contractions

Perimetrium: thin outer layer

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19
Q

List the components of the male reproductive tract.

A

Testes
Epididymis
Rete testis
Vas deferens
Seminiferous tubules
Spermatic cord
Urethra
Penis

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20
Q

What are the testes?

A

Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and testosterone

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21
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

Long, coiled tube attached to the back of each testis, where sperm is matured and stored until ejaculation

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22
Q

What is the vas deferens?

A

Muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation

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23
Q

What is rete testis?

A

Network of interconnected tubules in the testes that collect sperm from the seminiferous tubules and pass them into the epididymis

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24
Q

What are the seminiferous tubules?

A

Where sperm is made via spermatogenesis, long coiled structures within the testes

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25
What is the spermatic cord?
Bundle of structures including the vas deferens, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, runs from abdomen to the testes
26
What are Leydig cells?
Cells outside the seminiferous tubules within the testis Produce testosterone
27
What are Sertoli cells?
Support cells inside the seminiferous tubules that nourish developing sperm, form the blood-testis barrier, and regulate spermatogenesis
28
Describe the histology of semen.
Consists of spermatazoa (mature sperm) and seminal fluid Each ejaculate is around 3.5ml 25% of spermatozoa in normal fertile males is abnormal or degenerate But once they've passed through the epididymis they are mature and motile
29
What is the HPG axis?
General term for the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis Two types: HPO: hypothalamic pituitary ovarian axis HPT: hypothalamic pituitary testicular axis
30
Describe how the HPO axis works.
Hypothalamus releases GnRH GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary produces FSH and LH FSH stimulates follicles to grow and mature into Graafian follicles LH surge at ovulation boots the egg out of the Graafian follicles Corpus luteum (empty follicle) produces progesterone to help lining of endometrium to thicken and prepare for blastocyst implantation Follicles produce oestrogen Feeds back to HPO axis in a loop
31
Describe how the HPT axis works.
Hypothalamus releases GnRH GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary produces LH and FSH LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to produce testosterone, helps support spermatogenesis FSH acts on Sertoli cells within seminiferous vesicles to support spermatogenesis
32
What is GnRH?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Released from the hypothalamus Stimulates synthesis and secretion of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
33
What is FSH?
Follicle stimulating hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary Stimulates ovarian follicle growth Stimulates follicles to produce oestrogen
34
What is LH?
Luteinising hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary LH surge at ovulation causes ovum to be released from Graafian follicle
35
What is oestrogen?
Hormone secreted by ovarian follicle Inhibits FSH production Stimulates LH release
36
What is progesterone?
Hormone produced by corpus luteum Helps to maintain the endometrium for blastocyst implantation
37
What is endometriosis?
Chronic inflammatory condition where endometrial like tissue grows outside of the uterus Responds to hormonal changes and causes pain and inflammation Symptoms include chronic pelvic pain, painful periods, dyspareunia, etc.
38
What is dyspareunia?
Pain during sex
39
What is PCOS?
Polycystic ovary syndrome Common endocrine disorder characterised by hormonal imbalances, irregular ovulation, and ovarian cysts Involves excessive androgen production, insulin resistance, obesity, etc. Symptoms include acne, excessive hair growth, painful periods, etc.
40
What are the cell types in an ovarian follicle?
Mural granulosa Theca Cumulus granulosa Zona pellucida Oocyte
41
What are mural granulosa cells?
Cells that produce hormones during the follicular phase, including oestrogen After ovulation, they produce oestrogen
42
What are theca cells?
Cells that produce androgens like testosterone Essential for fertility
43
What are cumulus granulosa cells?
Cells that surround the oocyte and regulate the oocyte's growth, maturation and meiosis
44
What is the zona pellucida?
An extracellular matrix that surrounds the plasma membrane of the egg cell Helps protect the egg and has an essential role in fertilisation
45
What is an oocyte?
Egg in a follicle Surrounded by cumulus granulosa Important for meiosis
46
Describe the formation of primordial follicles.
Form during foetal development When oogonia (egg precursors) surround themselves with a single layer of squamous granulosa cells Primordial follicles remain inactive until puberty
47
Which stage of follicle formation is gonadotropin independent?
The formation of pre-antral follicles: Surrounding of the cuboidal granulosa cells and zona pellucida around the oocyte via stimulatory factors Also the formation of theca cells surrounding the oocyte and forming the basement membrane of the follicle
48
Which stage of follicle formation is gonadotropin dependent?
FSH release aids formation of antral follicles Development of antral follicles into pre-ovulatory follciles (Graafian)
49
What is a spermatogonial stem cell?
Cells in the testis that create sperm and maintain male fertility
50
What are spermatogonia?
Precursor cells to sperm, located in the seminiferous tubules, eventually undergo spermatogenesis
51
What are the five stages of fertilisation?
1) Sperm capacitation 2) Acrosome reaction 3) Sperm binding to ZP2 4) Sperm binding to Juno 5) Sperm and egg fusion
52
What is sperm capacitation?
The process that occurs after sperm leave the male reproductive tract Involves biochemical changes that enable the sperm to penetrate and fertilise an egg (e.g. alterations in membrane and increased motility)
53
What is the acrosome reaction?
Enzymes are released from the tip of the sperm Exposes the IZUMO1 ligand on sperm
54
How does the sperm bind to ZP2?
The sperm penetrates the zona pellucida by binding to ZP2 via a sperm ligand
55
How does the sperm bind to Juno?
The sperm binds to Juno on the egg cell by the IZUMO1 ligand This is stabilised by the CD9 transmembrane protein
56
How do the egg and sperm fuse?
Via an unidentified fusogen Microvilli engulf the sperm starting at the equatorial segment Anterior is engulfed by pinocytosis Sperm tail stops moving Swelling occurs (forms fertilisation cone) Sperm head and tail pass into the oocyte cytoplasm
57
What happens after egg and sperm fusion?
Polyspermy block via the cortical reaction Cortical granules in the egg move and fuse with the egg plasma membrane They release their contents into the perivitelline space This cleaves ZP2 and removes oligosaccharides from ZP3 This changes the structure of the zona pellucida so no more sperm can bind
58
How does egg activation occur?
Sperm releases an activation factor Causes a calcium wave across the surface of the egg This is followed by calcium oscillations Stops when the two pronuclei form together
59
How does the zygote form?
Zygote forms after sperm penetration Male pronucleus and female pronucleus undergo decondensation Pronuclei then approach and fuse, combining genetic material to form zygote
60
What is syngamy?
The fusion of the male and female pronuclei to form a zygote
61
What happens after a zygote forms?
Cleavage stages - reductive divisions as the cells become smaller and smaller The cells produced are blastomeres, which are totipotent, meaning they can form all body cells and the placenta cells
62
How is the embryo implanted into the uterus lining?
The zona pellucida splits Hatching the embryo which then imbeds into the endometrium This is a significant survival obstacle as many embryos don't survive beyond this point
63
Where are the cortical granules found in the mature oocyte?
In the cortex of the cytoplasm of the oocyte
64
What are some problems that may be caused after embryos have formed?
1) Meiotic spindle may migrate towards the centre, second polar body may not be extruded 2) Spindle may disintegrate, maternal chromosomes may be lost, forming benign trophoblastic tumours (only has paternal chromosomes) 3) Cortical granules migrate towards the centre instead of to the membrane
65
At what stage of pregnancy does the most reproductive loss occur?
Pre-implantation development phase
66
At what age does fertility decrease for men and women?
Female: Decreases after age 30, sharp decline after age 35 Males: Gradual decrease from age 40, but retains ability to produce sperm throughout entire life
67
What is primary infertility and secondary infertility?
Primary infertility: someone who has never conceived Secondary infertility: someone who has had one or more children
68
Define infertility/subfertility.
The inability to conceive after 12 months of regular, unprotected sex Or six months for couples over 35 years of age Can sometimes be assisted by reproductive therapies (subfertility)
69
What are causes of reproductive failure?
STIs, ovulation disorders, hypothalamic dysfunction, lifestyle factors, low sperm count, sperm motility, abnormal sperm, cancer, etc.
70
What is ICSI?
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection Carried out similarly to IVF but the sperm is directly injected into the egg
71
What are the pros and cons of IVF and ICSI?
Pros: safe track record, unused embryos can be used for research, screen for inherited diseases Cons: Success varies with age, risk of miscarriage, multiple pregnancies, birth defects, etc.
72
What is Clomifene?
Fertility drug Binds to oestrogen receptors and stimulates GnRH release and therefore LH and FSH, stimulating ovulation 73% effective But prolonged use linked to ovarian cancers
73
What is metformin?
Drug used to treat insulin resistance in PCOS patients
74
What are Gonadotrophins?
Drugs used to simulate GnRH production to facilitate ovulation

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