Migrants and the Making of Modern Australia Short Answer Test Flashcards
1
Q
Name a piece of legislation that formed part of the White Australia Policy?
A
Immigration Restriction Act (1901)
Pacific Island Labourers Act (1901) [allowed for deportation of Pacific Islanders& restriction of more coming]
Commonwealth Franchise Act (1902) [defined the rights of migrants and stripped away rights of non-British migrants to citizenships, therefore the right to vote]
Naturalisation Act (1902)
2
Q
Name 3 nationalities affected by the Amending Immigration Act (‘Enemy Aliens Act) of 1920?
A
German, Austrian-German, Turks, Bulgarians, Hungarians
3
Q
During the period from 1902 to 1946, what could result in the loss of citizenship rights for Female British subjects?
A
Marrying an ‘alien’, meaning an non-naturalised subject/citizen
o law overturned in 1946
4
Q
What was a requirement for Jews granted admission to Australia in the 1930s? Would also be worth knowing the percent or number of Jewish applicants accepted each year.
A
Jews had to be sponsored by Jewish or philanthropic organisations; weren’t given assisted passages by government
Australian sets a quota of 10% of Jewish Applications.
5
Q
Why was the migrant intake quota significantly reduced during the Depression era in Australia? This question is a bit easy!
A
Australia stopped funding assisted passages. Not many people were trying to enter Australia during the depression and there were more people leaving the country than people arriving. There were also not enough jobs in the economy and there were fears of loosing out to a Chinese migrant workforce who were willing to work for cheaper.
o The strategy to protect ‘native’ born Australians’ jobs was by reducing migrant intake quota e.g. intake of Italians and Greeks halved
o Aus didn’t actually have to worry too much because people were not trying to come here during the depression
o Net emigration: permanent
6
Q
Australia’s quota system in the 1920s responded to a similar policy implemented by which country?
A
USA
7
Q
What was the main purpose of the Immigration Restriction Act?
A
- prohibited various classes of people from immigrating, including those with infectious diseases, those recently imprisoned, prostitutes or pimps, and “idiots” or “insane” persons
- included provision for potential migrants to be given a dictation test – designed to prohibit entry to non-whites and those not of British character
8
Q
Name a possible exception to the Dictation test for Asian immigrants?
A
Business heirs and family reunions
9
Q
In response to anti-Chinese sentiment, what did the New South Wales government enact in 1861? Maybe rephrase: e.g. what measures were introduced in 1861 in NSW to limit the influx of Chinese to the state?
A
Chinese Immigration Act (1861) - residence tax on Chinese people to stop them from coming to Australia
*They would escape the £10 tax by arriving in Robe, SA and then walking over to VIC
10
Q
How did the government of Victoria aim to discourage Chinese immigration and settlement? OR In Victoria in 1855, what was one of the measures implemented to restrict Chinese migration by sea? Would be good to know all of the measures aimed at preventing their entry
A
Victoria in 1855 implements the following laws to stop the Chinese from entering Aus:
a) £10 tax for every Chinese entering by sea (meaning they had to pay for the trip, and set up costs)
b) limitation of Chinese landings to 1 Chinese person for every 10 tons of ship’s weight
c) est. of Protectorates to control Chinese on the goldfields NSW: Chinese Immigration Act (1861) – residence tax on Chinese
11
Q
What were the consequences for ships suspected of carrying illegal immigrants?
A
Both captain and the owners of ships transporting illegal immigrants fined £100 for each immigrant (unless European)
12
Q
How did Australia’s non-European population compare to other countries by 1947, due to the ‘White Australia Policy’?
A
By 1947, the non-European population (excluding Indigenous/First Nations people) was measured by the Census as just 0.25% of Australia’s total population. Aust had become one of the ‘whitest’ countries in the world outside north-western Europe.
13
Q
How did Canada’s Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 impact immigration from China? This question won’t be asked, as it isn’t directly related to Australia.
A
Canada – Chinese Immigration Act (1885), imposed a hefty tax on all immigrants from China…strengthened with Chinese Immigration Act (1923) which banned Chinese immigration entirely ($50 > $100 > $500 which was equivalent to two years worth of Canadian wages) (and it was 1 Chinese person per 50 tonnes of weight on the ship)
14
Q
How many people passed the Dictation Test after 1909?
A
None passed after 1909.
[* 1902-3: only 46 of 805 people passed test
* 1904-9: only 6 of 554 of people passed
]
15
Q
The Dictation Test, despite being used in fewer than 2000 cases, was considered effective for achieving what goal? OR Despite its application in fewer than 2000 instances, the Dictation Test remained effective in achieving which primary objective? Would be good to know how the Dictation Test operated in practice - i.e. what was involved.
A
Dictation test was designed to prohibit entry of non-whites and those not of British character to Australia.
50 word passage, any European language (but any language could be chosen and could be administered in several languages)
16
Q
Why did Australia refrain from explicitly naming undesirable races in the Immigration Restriction Act?
A
Australia could not explicitly name undesirable races in the Immigration Restriction Act for fear of embarrassing Britain
o Because Britain had signed treaties/alliances with some Asian countries such as Japan and because its empire had administration and control over India .
17
Q
Name 2 potential consequences for illegal immigrants under the Immigration Restriction Act.
A
Illegal immigrants could be imprisoned for up to six months, then deported
18
Q
Name a reason why the Japanese were specifically targeted for internment Would be good to know all (three) reasons.
A
- Firstly, political affiliation of Japanese difficult to determine
o They did not have the equivalent of the fascist or Nazi parties which German and Italy had
o so for Germans and Italians to be interned they had to show that they had these political affiliations – like raising money for their political parties
o Therefore, it was easier to lock-up all the Japanese if we couldn’t determine their affiliation - Secondly, it was perceived that Japanese did not easily assimilate into Australian culture nor adopt Australian values
- Thirdly, it was perceived that Japanese had a fanatical devotion to their homeland which would lead them to outrageous acts – like sabotage
o i.e. Japanese soldiers had a strong loyalty to their country as such in the event if they became POWs it was expected that they try escaping even if it means death or kill themselves - Fate of (white) Australian-born women married to Japanese aliens?
o Their citizenship rights were forfeited and would become interned
o Even happened to an Aboriginal woman
Also Japan bombed Australia ?
19
Q
Provide 2 examples of activities undertaken by internees during their internment
A
Gardening (agriculture industry was impeded by the war)
Music (pitched in to buy instruments)
Working (but only if they volunteered)
Golf, matriculation, opium poppies for morphine
20
Q
Which country offered to take more Jews after the Evian conference? Not important enough to warrant a question in the quiz.
A
Dominican Republic
21
Q
How many displaced persons from Europe did Australia accept between 1947-52? This is a good question!
A
170,000 displaced persons
[* Assisted DPs – 170,000 (approx. 60,000 Poles)
* Assisted British – 120,000
* Unassisted – 160,000 (mainly Europeans who came without assistance or under any humanitarian schemes)]
22
Q
Why was Australia selective in the acceptance of displaced persons after WWII? A bit too broad. Questions will be more specific than this, asking for key dates, statistics, individuals (politicians, historians etc.), concepts, etc. that were spoken about in the lectures
A
Australia had a worker shortage and needed young men and women who were fit to work with them in manual labour and domestic work respectively. Young families were okay because children were malleable hence more likely to adopt Australian values. Older families and single mothers were less acceptable
23
Q
What were the reasons Australia targeted the Japanese for internment? I just realised someone wrote a similar question (number 18 previously). Maybe based on your comment Dr. Paul, it can be reworded this way instead? Yes, this wording is fine.
A
Firstly, political affiliation of Japanese difficult to determine
o They did not have the equivalent of the fascist or Nazi parties which German and Italy had
o so for Germans and Italians to be interned they had to show that they had these political affiliations – like raising money for their political parties
o Therefore, it was easier to lock-up all the Japanese if we couldn’t determine their affiliation
* Secondly, it was perceived that Japanese did not easily assimilate into Australian culture nor adopt Australian values
* Thirdly, it was perceived that Japanese had a fanatical devotion to their homeland which would lead them to outrageous acts – like sabotage
o i.e. Japanese soldiers had a strong loyalty to their country as such in the event if they became POWs it was expected that they try escaping even if it means death or kill themselves
* Fate of (white) Australian-born women married to Japanese aliens?
o Their citizenship rights were forfeited and would become interned
o Even happened to an Aboriginal woman
Also Japan bombed Australia ?
24
Q
How many British migrants arrived in Australia with the help of the Ten Pound Scheme? And how many/what percentage returned to Britain?
A
1.1 million ten pound poms
23% of ten pound poms returned home
25
What was the Good Neighbour Movement, and how did it aim to assist the integration of migrants into Australian culture?
The Good Neighbour Movement was introduced by Harold Holt where local organisations and church groups would put on events to teach migrants how to behave.
The aimed to assist integration through personal friendship, neighbourly companionship, and community of cultural interests
26
Explain what is meant by ‘pasta and polka’ multiculturalism in 2-3 sentences
Pasta and polka multiculturalism refers to multiculturalism that takes place at a very surface level. It accepts visible cultural differences such as food, clothing, music and dance, but does not go beyond this scope. Different cultural values, belief systems and philosophies/school of thought are not equally tolerated, therefore, reinforcing the British racial superiority and inferiority of everyone else.
* Therefore, it fails to address more fundamental questions of migrant or ethnic disadvantage and racism…
* Multiculturalism conceals the racism and ideas about racial superiority that still govern Aust social and cultural life…it is just another form of ‘assimilation’
* Creates the impression that particular ethnic cultures are ‘fixed’ and unchanging (China = sweet and sour pork; Dutch = funny shorts and slapping hands)
* Overlooks fact that
o (a) migrant home country cultures are sophisticated;
o (b) many migrants have adopted ‘Australianisms’
27
Where are Australia’s most prominent ethnic enclaves located, and which ethnic groups are most prevalent there?
Carlton - Italians
Cabramatta, Springvale, Footscray, Pennington, Ferryden Park - Vietnamese
(Cronulla - Lebanese?, Carlton - Jewish, Elizabeth - British, Greeks, Lebs?)
* Italians and Greeks – inner city
o Melbourne: Fitzroy, Brunswick, Richmond, Collingwood and Carlton
o Adelaide: Thebarton, Hindmarsh, St Peters, Kensington and the City
o Generally, they were used to small villages and the hustle and bustle that brought with it
* Eastern Europeans and Maltese – favoured ‘green field’ suburbs [outer suburbs]
* Jews went to areas already settled by Jews (St Kilda, Balaclava, Caulfield in Melbourne)
o most significant example of non-British middle-class migrant settlement
* British, Germans and Dutch – favoured outer suburbs, tended to segregate
* British industrial suburbs: Elizabeth (Adel); Sunshine (Melb); Kwinana (Perth)
* these migrant suburbs grew up around specific industries that actively recruited migrants for their workforce
28
What did PM John Howard change the Department of Multiculturalism to?
Department of Immigration and Citizenship
29
What year did the dictation test end?
Test was removed in 1958 under the Migration Act (1958). It was used in fewer than 2000 cases
30
Who was Al Grassby and what did he do?
Al Grassby, Minister for Immigration (under the Whitlam gov).
He was an early adopter of multiculturalism by introducing the idea of ‘the family of a nation’ where migrants’ cultural input was valued
31
Write your suggested quiz questions below. Note: They should pertain only to key dates, statistics, individuals (politicians, historians etc.), concepts, etc. that were spoken about in the lectures. If you require a more 'detailed' response, begin the question by writing 'In 2-3 sentences, explain why...'
32
Aim of the White Australia Policy?
* Its goal was to keep Australia ‘white’, meaning:
o British in character
o Coming from Britain
o British traditions
o Understanding Christianity, rule of law and having white skin
o By excluding non-white people from coming to Australia
33
When did the White Australia Policy end?
It ended in the 1970s, but began to be scaled back in the 1950s
34
How many Chinese migrants were there from 1847-52?
42,000
35
What were Australians' concerns about Chinese migrants? (total 4 reasons)
1. China population: 300 million – China was so large but Aus was very small with a population of approx. 1 million (circa the 1850s)
2. Chinese migrants ‘didn’t assimilate’ (lived and worked together, different religion) (not necessarily true)
3. (Australians') Feelings of racial superiority
4. Chinese men had vices such as
gambling. and opium smoking
However, there were very low rates of Chinese people committing crimes
36
What was the real resentment for Chinese migrants?
* Real reason for Chinese animosity was that they were competitors in the workforce and goldfields
* They worked 7 days a week because they didn’t follow Christianity and take a break on the Sabbath, they worked from morning to dusk, they worked/help each other and were therefore very efficient
* They often sent the gold/money home to pay off debts that allowed them to migrate to begin with
* Therefore, they weren’t reinvesting that money back into the economy/local businesses of the Irishmen’s grocery shop and the Scotsmen’s pubs
37
Name one of two Anti-Chinese Riots.
* Buckland River ‘Massacre’, 1857
o robbery, arson, murder (?)…
o European miners marched on the Chinese camp [of the goldfields] to try and drive away the Chinese
o Murders were not proven to be associated with the riots
o Trial of the offenders and all were acquitted, except for 4 who had minor charges
o The offenders were treated like heroes outside the courthouse
* Lambing Flats Riots, 1860-61
o robbery, arson
o Demonstration by “White miners vigilance committee” which were protesting against gambling dens
o They beat and wounded the Chinese quarter
o This happened over the course of six months
o Colonial authorities resolution was to keep the Chinese out of the area, rather rthan condemn the perpetrators
38
How did Chinese migrants use loopholes to enter Victoria?
* They would escape the £10 tax by arriving in Robe, SA and then walking over to VIC
* Hence, federation in 1901 worked together to stop these loopholes from being exploited and make the White Australia Policy Stronger
* But Chinese people arriving in Robe were also exploited because the boat would only come in so far and people would come with smaller boats and charge them to reach the coast because otherwise they would drown
39
Who was Egon Kisch?
* Egon Kisch, exiled from Germany for opposing Nazism [because he was a communist], arrived in Australia in 1934 [wanting to talk about communism] - Passed test in several languages, finally failed when he was tested in Scottish Gaelic
* Kisch challenges the decision in the High Court where the High Court found that Scottish Gaelic was not fairly part of the Act so the decision was overturned [of him being an illegal immigrant, but not many migrants had the inclination to do this]
40
Why did Australia want child migrants from the UK?
* Contribute to the building of ‘white Australia’ and the British Empire
o In the 20th c child migration schemes involved mostly British children
o These children help build ties between Australia and the Motherland (England)
o This was to uphold the white Australia and reinforce the British Empire
* i.e. young age meant their were more malleable and would not have ingrained biases
41
Peak era of child migration?
Child migration peaks in the 1870s (to WWI)
42
Who were the child migrants?
* ¼ of convicts sent to Australia were under 18 years old
* They assumed similar characteristics of child migrants sent to Australia; they were poor, destitute, abandoned/illegitimate children trying to survive, or in the car of public institutions
* Child migrants: apparently-abandoned, illegitimate, poverty -stricken children of primary school age, usually in care in Britain
* ‘apparently-abandoned’ because it was claimed they didn’t have parents but it turns out a lot of them did have parents who were unwilling and did not give their consent or at least informed consent for their children to be sent to Aus
* ‘youth migrants’: post primary school age, generally made their own decision to migrate [but this does not mean they were making informed decisions]
43
Why did England allow for child migration?
o Social tension, burgeoning urban population [in cramped environments so they got in trouble for things like petty crimes so they were sent off to be exploited as the labour force in anther country]
* ‘Push’ factors: social havoc caused by the 1866 cholera epidemic, bad harvest of 1867, economic downturn = widespread unemployment
* [Push factors encourage people to leave their points of origin and settle elsewhere
* Child migrants were used as dominions to show the uncivilised how to be civilised (this was part of the UK's empire building)
* Humanitarian concerns: clearing the ‘teeming slums’ of Britain’s industrial cities
* Self-interest: threat of revolution
o Threat of the young people organising against this social order
44
True or false: there was child migration during the Depression?
False
45
Name one or two organisations involved in child migration?
Big Brother Movement; Children’s Farm School; Immigration Society of Western Australia (Fairbridge); Dr Barnardo’s Home’s; Overseas Children’s Scheme (operated during WWII)
46
Australia's declining birth rate from 3% to 1.7% was blamed on what by the NSW Royal Commission?
Selfish women [said by T.A. Coghlan]
47
What did Aus want that Britain had a shortage of during 1907-14?
Farmers
48
How many migrants arrived in Australia between 1906-14? What percentage of those were assisted?
393,048 migrants arrived in Australia between 1906-14
o 47% assisted
o peak in 1912: 91,891 migrants
o Most people went to the cities, few went on the land/rural areas
48
What was the percentage of migrants in the AIF during the Great War?
22%
ANZAC legend suggests that their [soldier’s] character comes from growing up in rural Australia, but this is contradicted by the fact that so many of them were recent British migrant arrivals
48
How many English war brides migrated to Aus during the Great War?
* 5,626 English war brides migrate to Aust
o total is 15,386 if we include fiancées, children and brides
o Men were not immediately sent back after the war, they were in England for some months on end waiting for a boat back
49
How many people were interned during the Great War? (percentage of Germans and the amount of Germans that left aus)
internment of approx. 7,000 ‘enemy aliens’: people originating from Germany, Turkey or Austro-Hungarian Empire - 14% of 33,000 people of German origin in Australia were interned - Torrens Island internment camp (SA)
o 14% of 33,000 people of German origin in Australia were interned
o Approx. 5,000 German-born people voluntarily left Australia because of feelings of hostility
49
How did Germans respond to interment?
There was also a rush for people to naturalise into British subjects and change their names
However, Anti-German League was set up in Australia in response to this and made it an offence to anglicise your name to hide your German background
49
Name an Australian town that changed its name from Bismarck during the Great War.
* E.g. in WW1, towns and physical features previously known as ‘Bismarck’ were changed to:
o Weeropa (SA)
o Maclagen (Qld)
o Collins Vale (Tas)
o Mt Bismarck → Mt Kitchener (Vic)
* 69 place names in SA changed [because we had the most German people]
* Some changed back after 1930s
50
What made Australia an attactive destination from British people to migrate too?
Higher wages
[also propaganda about fertile soil and nice climate]
50
Why did Britain support assisted migration? (3 reasons)
* British support for assisted migration based on 3 concerns:
1. Inability to provide for ex-servicemen
o there weren’t jobs guaranteed for them so they had to be paid benefits/pensions + Aus wanted the brave/heroic British soldiers who had triumphed in adversity
2. Extension of Empire
o British ideas and British stock were superior, therefore for the good of humanity it deserved to be exported around the world
3. Twin myths of urban degeneration and rural revitalisation
o Concerns of rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in Britain which had stripped the country of athletic and hard-working people and dumped them into smoke field cities and factory jobs, with on-going poverty therefore preventing the denigration of the British stock
* 35,000 ex-servicemen, wives and children emigrate to Australian under scheme
* They received assisted passagers(?) to help set up which was mostly paid by Aus but also Britain
50
Why were child migrants ideal for Australia?
* children and youth made attractive migrants: malleable personalities and identities
* It was believed these boys were the perfect fit for Aus because they were accustomed to having to live by their wits and having cunning, these would be useful attributes to help them survive in Aus
50
What percentage of assisted passages were for children?
children and juveniles schemes accounted for 10% of assisted migrants who came to Aust in 1920s - 14,000 boys and 2,000 girls came between 1922-27
* SA scheme: the ‘Barwell Boys’ (1922-24) – 1,444 boys aged 15-18 years
50
What was the Empire Settlement Act (1922)
* The act meant that Britain provides financial support to export its own people; 1st time since 1870
* Britain subsidised the cost of the passage for the migrants and provided to Aus government access to capital in the form of low interest loans
* assisted passages; provision of low cost loans to Aust state and federal govts
* Aust govts provide irrigation systems, roads and railway, grain depot, upgrade ports, factories etc. for where the farmers were going to go
* In total, Britain provides £34 million in low-cost loans to Australian state govt initiatives aimed at supporting migrants
50
What was the cost of coming to Australia under the Empire settlement act?
* The cost to come to Aus was £33, but this was reduced by £11 if you were approved to come under the Empire Settlement Act; children free; teenagers half price
* Italians also qualified for assistance under this scheme somehow? Mostly when to QLD and WA
50
Which country hated our nefarious advertising to receive migrants under the Empire Settlement act?
Canada - bc they also qualified to receive migrants
50
Outcomes of British migration in the 1920s?
1. Aus's population grew by 22%
2. Many migrants returned because their farms failed
3. 1/3 deemed to be ‘skilled’: important contribution to city based industries/urban labour force – therefore, they did help the Aus economy, just not the agricultural secto
50
Why did the assisted passages of the 1920s fail?
the Great Depression
50
In what cases would Italians be given assistance in coming to Australia in the 1920s?
Skilled workers in areas we needed them
50
Describe landing money? How did it effect migrants from different nations?
Migrants needed at least 10 pounds when arriving in aus to set themselves up. We would hike it up to 40 pounds for nationalities we didn't like (to be overt but this isnt really overt) - but asians were mostly inadmissable
51
Name three nationalities effected by the 1920s quota system?
Maltease, Greeks, Yugoslaves, Estonians, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs
52
How many Italian could come to Aus in 1928?
The Italian Quota in 1928 was 3,000 people which was actually the largest quota
53
How many Jews applied for applications to migrate to Aus in1938?
* 1938 – over 50,000 Jewish applications for emigration to Australia
* Australia sets quota at 5,100 (10% of applications)
54
Why was Jewish migration low in 1935?
* 1935 – approx. 100 Jewish migrants that applied to come to Australia
o Aus mostly wasn’t on their radar because the main destination was USA
o 1936 – 150 migrants
o 1937 – 500 migrants
55
Why was the Minister for Trade and Customs, Thomas White, against Jewish migration in 1938?
Because Australia preferred British stock - but said it was wrong to show preference
* “Under the circumstances, Australia cannot do more, for it will be appreciated that in a young country man power from the source from which most of its citizens have sprung is preferred [we want British people], while undue privileges cannot be given to one particular class of non-British subjects without injustice to others [We can’t be seen favouring one over the others so it is best to be seen doing nothing]. It will no doubt be appreciated also that, as we have no real racial problem, we are not desirous of importing one by encouraging any scheme of large-scale foreign migration.”
56
Why were Jews considered 'undesirable'?
- they seemed unwilling/unable to integrate and assimilate into a new culture
-Jews easily identifiable by ‘outsiders’: peculiar dress, adherence to ritual, settling in ‘ghettos’ [congregated together in certain areas like Carlton + Balaclava] – perceived to be unwilling or unable to assimilate
-Polish Jews had a disregard for living and working conditions therefore their presence might ‘provoke’ anti-Semitic disturbances
57
Was Australia generous in it's acceptance of Jewish people.
Yes and no. Australia accepted far more Jewish people than other countries. Some countries had nefarious motives for accepting Jewish people like thinking that they would bring a lot of money into the economy. To be fair, Australia accepted these Jews before WWII had actually even broken out?
* What is to be gained from stressing Australia’s ‘relative generosity’ when the benchmark was so low?
* Would Aus have extended help to other groups? Were they purely restricting entry based on Anti-Semitism?
o Greater restriction of Italian and Greek immigrants in the 1930s [1500 migrants allowed vs 5000 Jews]
58
What were the conditions for Spanish migrants coming to Australia who were fleeing from persecution?
Spanish people in Aus were treated like migrants and not refugees meaning they needed 50 pounds of landing money, guarantors and organisations to help them settle
59
What is Australia's current migration quote for humanitarian need?
15,000
60
In 1901, who was considered Australian?
* 1901: ‘Australians’ were British subjects – emigrants from Commonwealth countries had full citizenship rights (unless they were women – they gained rights the following year!)
* Australian Citizenship did not exist until late 1940s, previously everyone was considered to be British subjects
61
What was the Naturalisation Act (1946)?
o This bill was to try to define what rights a migrant might have
o This gave European migrants citizenship rights after 2 years residency in Australia as long as you behaved yourself
o However, the act denied citizenship rights to “aboriginal natives of Asia, Africa, or the Islands of the Pacific, excluding New Zealand” (enforced until 1956)
62
What was the War Precautions Act, 1914, 1915
o conferred broad and arbitrary powers on the Federal government to restrict civil liberties, especially the activities of ‘aliens’ (non-British) in Australia. Repealed in 1920.
63
What was the 1919 War Precautions Aliens Registration Regulations?
o required all non-British Europeans in Australia to register and to report any change of address. Superseded by the Aliens Registration Act 1920.
64
What was the Enemy Aliens Act’ (1920)?
* ‘Enemy Aliens Act’ 1920 (officially: Amending Immigration Act)
o prohibited Germans, Austrian-Germans, Bulgarians, Hungarians and Turks [People we had been fighting against in the war] from entering Australia for 5 years from 2 December 1920.
o This law was repealed in 1925
o Aliens couldn’t vote, they could be interned and deported
o In WW1 some people are interned in Torrens Island
o In WWII, people of Japanese, German and Italian origin were put in internment camps – even if they had lived in Australian for 2-3 generations
* Also prohibited anyone who advocated the forceful overthrow of the Australian or any other government.
* Repealed (with the exception of Turks) in 1925.
65
Name one internment camp and where it was located?
Loveday (SA)
* One of the largest internment camps in the Loveday Internment Camp in the Riverland region of SA
* consisted of 6 compounds
* housed over 5,500 ‘aliens’ between 1941-46
* Oftentimes, they would move internees around so they might have spent time in 3-4 different camps
66
What was a difference between internment in WWI and WWII?
Internees were indiscriminately rounded up in WWII, whereas they were selected during WWI
67
What was Australia's motivation for internment camps?
Aus’s concerns were that enemy aliens would engage in sabotage and espionage
* as we expected spies had probably arrived in Aus prior to WWII and we had just taken in a lot of German and Australian Jews – but we interned them because we were suspicious
* Hindsight: these suspicions were largely unfounded and there were few cases of spies or people aiding the enemies
68
How many enemy aliens were interned during WWII?
* approx. 8,000 Australian residents (mostly ‘aliens’) interned in WW2: Germans, Italians, Austrians, Japanese
o but the total number of people who were interned during the war was 16,000 but half of those were POWs (mostly Japanese, but also internees from NZ and New Caledonia because they didn’t have these facilities)
* Some were only for a couple of weeks because they could prove their innocence/ they weren’t a threat
* Suspicions were triggered by observations by private citizens who took it upon themselves to spy on their neighbours
69
What were the circumstances of women being interned?
* no women would be interned expect in particular circumstances
o Their citizenship rights were forfeited and would become interned
o Even happened to an Aboriginal woman
* change after May 1941 – likelihood of Japanese involvement in war: all Japanese men over 16 y.o were to be interned
* All women of Japanese origin would also be interned until they could be transferred out of the country (even though this couldn’t always happen)
* There was a union of ex-soldiers who wanted all aliens to be interned
70
Why were Japanese aliens target for internment?
* Firstly, political affiliation of Japanese difficult to determine
o They did not have the equivalent of the fascist or Nazi parties which German and Italy had
o so for Germans and Italians to be interned they had to show that they had these political affiliations – like raising money for their political parties
o Therefore, it was easier to lock-up all the Japanese if we couldn’t determine their affiliation
* Secondly, it was perceived that Japanese did not easily assimilate into Australian culture nor adopt Australian values
* Thirdly, it was perceived that Japanese had a fanatical devotion to their homeland which would lead them to outrageous acts – like sabotage
o i.e. Japanese soldiers had a strong loyalty to their country as such in the event if they became POWs it was expected that they try escaping even if it means death or kill themselves
71
Who were some unfortunate internees?
* Australian women married to Japanese aliens
* Australians with dark skin complexions, without papers or living in isolated areas, who associated with aliens;
o e.g. Martin Wellington / Toshio Nagano
o This man was thought to be Japanese because he was a pearl diver and had dark skin and they thought his name was Toshio Nagano but it was actually Martin Wellington
o It suspected he may have actually been aboriginal
* sailors and visitors from ‘enemy’ nations who were in Australia or Australian waters when war broke out
o Visiting troupe of Japanese acrobats that were interned because they just happened to be in Aus when that policy was announced
* the Dunera group – predominantly Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany; and other German Jews
72
How did most people come to be interned?
* Alien registration cards – names linked to those active in political and cultural organisations in support of the fascist regimes
o They primarily appeared on government registers as aliens
o But this is tricky because pre-1939 Mussolini was seen doing good things for Italy so this was not seen as a bad thing to support
o But post-1939 this was seen as a bad thing and was grounds for internment
o 1934 – Fascist group of Port Pirie congregated with Italian flag, British flag and photos of Mussolini – where they had fundraised money to send back to Italy for the fascist party
o This then becomes incriminating evidence in WWII to show that they support Mussolini/Fascist Party
* informed upon by neighbours (private citizens)
o you could try and prove your innocence through character witnesses to get out of internment so sometimes you were only interned for 1-2 weeks
* some welcomed internment for their own protection, or because they could not care for themselves/children outside
o i.e. like being a Japanese person in Aus after the Japanese bomb in Darwin (which was the first time Australian mainland came under attack)
o This was in Dec 1942 and 250 people died
o There would lots of hostility for the Japanese in these conditions
o Some women would also petition to be interned because they were away from their husbands and so maybe they didn’t have support to raise their kids, especially if they were ousted from the community for being Italian and German
* ‘malingers’ – these were people who found that camp life was more comfortable than the prospect of forced labour outside
o Especially because we were asking aliens to join something called the ‘Civil Alien Core/Corps’ who were made to do compulsory work/labour
o There was a case of people at the Loveday Internment Camp who were suspected of being malingers because they were exaggerating their allegiance to the fascist regime and exaggerating the crimes they had committed against Aus
o Their stories were so inconsistent and exaggerated that someone came in to interview them all
o The finding was that half the Italians that they interviewed were probably lying/exaggerating their anti-Australian activities because they would rather stay in the camp then be put out to work
73
How many internees were held in Loveday from 1941-1946??
5,500 ‘aliens’
74
Name a famous internee.
Prince Del Drego (cousin of the King of Italy), he became a leading representative of the Italians within the camp
75
What was a major flaw of the organisation of the internment camps?
* One of the flaws of the internment camp was that internees were segregated along national/ethnic lines rather than by political affiliation
* Meaning Nazis and Jews who arrived in 1938 could be interned together
* There was no effort to segregate them which led to strong tensions in the group
76
What ways was Australia attacked by Japan in WWII?
- Bombing of Darwin and Northern Territory
-Submarine attack on Sydney
77
What was the 'Populate or Perish' immigration policy? Who coined the term?
- Billy Hughes invented it and it was re-popularised by Arthur Calwell
The policy promoted immigration as a means of repopulating the country, especially as man workers were needed to execute the post-war reconstruction plan * E.g. Snowy River hydro-electric scheme, trans-national railway, building housing stock
78
What was the motivation for the 'populate or perish' immigration policy?
-Aus felt its population was too small to defend from a bigger country like Japan (who had more than double our population) and we had a declining birth rates
79
What nationality was preferred for the 'populate or perish' policy?
* Preference for British migrants (hoped for over 90%)
* Creation of Department of Immigration in 1946, aim to increase population by 1% every year through immigration (70,000 immigrants/year)
80
What were Displaced Persons' contractual obligations in Australia?
* Australia accepts c.170,000 DPs between 1947-52
o Aus would pay for their passage and accommodation if they were young, fit and willing to sign a two-year work contract
* Agree to 2-year work contracts (anywhere in Australia), paid at union wage rates
o They had no choice for where they were sent / what jobs
* DPs were threatened with deportation if they did not carry out their work contracts
81
Name two aspects of Australia's approach to assimilation?
* Two way process:
o adoption of ‘Australian way of life’
o suppression of former cultural identity – food, language, dress, etc
82
Did Australia enforce adherance to one religion?
No, Aus was built of a separation of church and state.
o We had Irish Catholics, English Protestants and Presbyterian Scottish people
83
How popular was J.P. O’Grady, They’re a Weird Mob (1957) [novel]? What does this say about views on assimilation in Aus at the time?
* This was a book that poked fun at how ‘strange’ the migrants were and it chastises those who do not assimilate into Australian culture
* The book was very popular
o 520,000 copy print run
o spin-off film and ‘sequels’
* success suggests how profound assimilationist-notions conditioned Australian opinion about migrants
84
What was the Aus Gov's preference for assimilation 20 years post-WWII?
* 20 years post-WWII, the gov expresses their preference that migrants should assimilate as quickly as possible
* They should assimilate through using English as their first language, mimicking Australian way of dress + working standards and giving up their food and customs of their homeland
* Migrants should strive to become Australian/British and reflect the ethnic origins of their ethnic home
85
What were some assumptions underpinning assimilation?
* Assumptions underpinning this desire for assimilation was that:
o All migrant pasts/histories are bad and must be forgotten before they can discover the real pleasures and virtues of Australia
o Impossible to participate in Australian life – and exercise responsible citizenship – if not speaking English at every opportunity
i.e. how are you going to vote if you don’t speak in English
o To speak another language in public = disloyalty; ‘plotting’
Like the distrust they had that Italians and Germans were plotting against them
o One cannot be loyal to Australia if one feels affection, or even allegiance, to another country
86
Who was Ronald Taft?
Ronald Taft created a questionnaire in 1962 in to measure how successfully someone has assimilated into Aus culture.
87
From 1831-1982 when was the only time Aus stopped providing assisted passaged?
* Aus provided assistance to British migrants every year from 1831-1982
o except during war and economic depression (1890s, 1930s)
o meaning far more Australians descended from assisted passages than convicts
88
Were migrants from other countries ever provided assisted passages?
* Until the 1940s, there is generally no assistance from anyone for anyone from other countries unless they are British
o Sometimes there was assistance for Italians and Scandinavians because they had skills in certain area that we needed in QLD and rural areas
* Generally no assisted passages for non-Britons until 1947
89
Who was generally eligible and not eligible for assisted passages?
* Generally, we always looked for:
o agricultural workers
o women to reduce the wide discrepancy between male and female numbers
* excluded: people with disabilities and ‘habitual paupers’ (people who were a drain on the state in England and we didn’t want them to do that here)
* families favoured, but not those with too many children
90
What was the 10 pound pom scheme? Who paid for ti?
* Post-WWII, Aus was still determined to bring out British people
o This was a difficult feat because there weren’t ships, British people were patriotic and wanted to rebuild their country
Thus, we decided to entice them through the £10 Pom Scheme
* 1947 - £10 passage for adults, children free
* Rest of fare paid by British and Aust Govts
* These schemes weren’t highly selective in terms of skills, being British was enough to be selected
91
How many British people migrated from late-1940s to mid-1980s without assistance?
* From late-1940s to mid-1980s, nearly half a million Brits emigrated without assistance
o Maybe because they didn’t qualify for assistance if they were poor or didn’t have the right skills or because they didn’t want charity
92
What would happen to ten pound poms if they returned home before their two year work contract was finished?
o If they went back home before their two year work contract was up then they would have to pay back the 10 pounds
93
What year had the highest amount of assisted passages for non-Britons?
1960s: 875,000 migrants given assistance (most in any decade since schemes started)
94
What was the ‘Bring Out a Briton’ (1957) scheme? How much did the government spend on it?
* A scheme where if a farmer or whoever wanted workers with a particular skills, then they would pin a notice telling the government that
* Then the gov would source these people from overseas and they would be given assistance
* 1946-58: £28,500,000 spent on assisting Britons to emigrate opposed to £9,500,000 to bring migrants from 38 other countries
95
What is a 'Green Field' Migrant Suburb?
* Outer suburbs – cheapest land because little infrastructure (incl. sealed roads); few public amenities
* Could build your own home with your own hands
96
What were 1975 Immigrant Settlement Patterns? Why?
* Migrants settled in working class suburbs
o Generally close to where they were working
* Inner city
o Because this was where the factories were formed
o Because cities were much smaller than what they were today
* Outer fringe suburbs (‘green field’ suburbs)
o Cheap to live in fringe suburbs because they were far away from where people worked / long commute
o Didn’t really have good amenities and education
* Cheapest housing (because smallest, oldest houses; stigma of crowding; lack of parks and gardens)
o Regarded as slum like
o But now they are really gentrified like Bowden and Hindmarsh
* Close to CBD and public transport routes (access to jobsite without having a car)
97
What were the fears behind 'ghetto' formations?
* Why did people fear ethnic ‘ghettos’:
* perceived to reduce the likelihood of migrant assimilation
* perceived to foster crime and violence – e.g. Italian mafia
* made fellow ‘Australian’ residents feel like ‘strangers’ in their own land (Blainey’s complaint)
* international precedent of violence and rioting by racial minorities concentrated in particular suburbs (Chicago, London etc.)
o West Indian community in England and there was rioting in response to people feeling disadvantaged
98
What is another way of conceptualising ghettos?
ically, Australian hasn’t experienced static ghetto formation; rather ‘zones of transition’
* Migrants settle, prosper, move out at first opportunity, replaced by other migrants
o So once the Italians moved out, other Italians would move in which made it appear static
o e.g. Italian migrants of Carlton
o Rather than a ghetto, it is a zone of transition
* Also pushed out of inner-city by ‘gentrification’ from 1980s onwards
o Working professionals who wanted to live close to work and would invest a lot into their homes hence driving up the cost in the area
99
What is unique about Italian home-ownership?
* Italians are the very definition of the ‘Australian Dream’ of home ownership
* Ghettos were places that were actually ‘zones of transition’ that provided social support, community networks, government services, centres for migrants, translation services, cheap housing
* But once they were economically prosperous, usually second gen, then they would move out of there and were replaced by people from their country
100
Why were outer suburbs not considered ghettos?
* Outer Suburbs could probably not be considered ghettos because:
* Suburbs were brand-new
o New housing
o Cheaper + more spread out land
o High employment rate – time of economic boom so less poverty, crime and more investment in homes
* Pre-1970s high employment rates = relative prosperity = migrant mobility
* Prosperity = relatively few social problems associated with job insecurity or poverty
101
Why were Vietnamese migrants concentrated in Cabramatta?
1. Cabramatta’s close proximity to 3 of 4 refugee-receiving migrant centres in Sydney (NB: similarity with Adelaide’s Vietnamese population, near Pennington hostel)
2. Family reunion migration from overseas and elsewhere in Australia (sponsor needs to guarantee new arrival’s wellbeing, accommodation etc.)
a. Then family would want to live close together so it was easier for them to move to Cabramatta
3. Existence of cheap rental accommodation (not a desirable location)
4. Depressed economic climate (1970s-80s) that precluded the normal residential dispersal of migrants once they gain more wealth
a. Unemployment rates jumped from 2% to 10%
b. So they couldn’t come, work and move out
5. Proximity to transport network and industrial estates (i.e. job sites)
6. Social support and ‘economies of scale’: neighbours in similar predicament willing to provide child care, car pool, language translation etc. – it is ‘cost effective’ for them to stay
102
What dud Kevin Dunn's study about Vietnamese people in Cabramatta discover?
* Most people, if not all, were happy to move out if they could
* only elderly and poor English speakers reluctant to move out (because they needed security of the community)
103
What made is hard for Vietnamese people to move out of enclaves?
* Structural forces constrain Vietnamese from moving to other areas:
* Discrimination –
o fears of violence or vilification
o home-owners discriminate against Asian tenants
* Sydney rental market – shortage of affordable accommodation
* Greater employment opportunities within Cabramatta (language requirements not as strict)
* Migrants don’t immediately qualify for welfare, but their need for immediate employment
104
By the 1970s, what factors showed that assimilation wasn't working?
* After decades of being told to assimilate, migrants were clearly resisting and preserving their ethnic heritage
o Ethnic enclaves of Italians, Greeks, Lebanese, etc
o They even had language schools
* ‘Ethnic vote’ becomes important
* Skilled (and needed) migrant workers were returning home because of conditions imposed by assimilation
o Mostly British people
o They didn’t feel like their culture was inferior
105
Under which government did multiculturalism policy begin to take place?
* Whitlam Labor Govt (1972-5)
o States a preference for multiculturalism in 1973
* Al Grassby, Minister for Immigration (under the Whitlam gov)
* Post WW-II acceptance of migrants meant a monoculture was no longer viable
106
What were the key tenets of multiculturalism?
1. Every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures.
2. All members of society must have equal opportunity to realise their full potential and must have equal access to programs and service. Key Tenets of Multiculturalism
3. The needs of migrants should, in general, be met by programs and services available to the whole community, but special services and programs are necessary at present to ensure equality of access and provision. - Galbally Report, 1978
107
How did Australia's multiculturalism definition expanded in 1989?
equality yes, but everyone needs to adhere to Australia’s rule of law (and democratic processes)
108
Which governments showed supoprt for multicultralism and which did not?
• Whitlam Labor Govt (1972-75)
• Malcolm Fraser’s Liberal-National Govt (1975-83)
• Hawke and Keating Labor Govts (1983-96)
* Howard’s Liberal-National Govt (1996-2007) much less supportive
o Howard refused to use the word multiculturalism and discouraged its use
o He changed the name of the department of immigration and multicultural affairs to department of immigration and citizenship
o He abolishes two major institutions – The Office for Multicultural Affairs and Bureau for Immigration Research
109
What was Geoffrey Blainey's Critique of Multiculturalism?
1. Multiculturalism leads to social division by encouraging the formation of separate communities;
2. Multiculturalism involves a kind of social engineering by govt or ‘elites’ against the wishes of the majority of Australians;
3. Sectional, minority interests are promoted at the expense of the national interest;
4. Multiculturalism encourages a denigration of Australia’s past (black arm-band history)
5. Not all cultures are equal or equally deserving of respect
110
What is the conservative critique of multiculturalism?
* Multiculturalism leads to social division. It encourages migrant communities to remain separate. It will eventually lead to ethnic or racial violence. i.e. Cronulla riots
o But there has been very little violent ethnic tensions since the 1970s in Australia
* Multiculturalism is an attack on the core values that define the Australian way of life.
o Multiculturalism does not disparage Australia’s from practicing their culture
* Multiculturalism encourages values and practices that are ‘un-Australian’ (Islamic fundamentalism is usually the example given).
o Multiculturalism allows people to do their practices within the constraints of Australian law
o Who defines what is the ‘Australian way’
* Multiculturalism promotes the minority at the expense of the majority. It has cost the ‘ordinary Australian taxpayer’ billions of dollars.
o Giving migrants access to opportunities that the majority already have is going to cost money, but it has been vastly exaggerated i.e. translators
o Society is enhanced when migrants have these benefits
* Multiculturalism is a policy imposed by ‘elites’ against the wishes of ordinary Australians.
o Yeah, it is an issue raised by academics but that is literally what their job is vs being led by reactionary outrage
* Not all cultures are ‘equal’ nor are they equally deserving of our respect and support.
Core assumptions of the ‘conservative’ critique
* Australia has a clearly established ‘core culture’ or ‘core values’
* This culture is a good thing, and must be preserved in order to maintain Australia as a harmonious and prosperous nation
* Multiculturalism represents an attack on these values
* Promoting diversity produces social division and encourages separatism
111
What was the radical critique of multiculturalism?
* Multiculturalism only encourages a trivial or superficial recognition of cultural diversity (i.e. the ‘pasta and polka’ model)
* Therefore, it fails to address more fundamental questions of migrant or ethnic disadvantage and racism…
* Multiculturalism conceals the racism and ideas about racial superiority that still govern Aust social and cultural life…it is just another form of ‘assimilation’
112
What were the limitations on Australia unlimited?
* There was a reuptake in optimism for migration post WWII
* i.e. migrants/displaced persons helped Post-WW2 build hydro-electric schemes – generate power, wealth, provide irrigation
* Aust applying more of its water supply to irrigation than any other developed country (to increase our productive capacity)
* This helped populate these boundless plains
* However, migrants lived in cities and not rural areas and the migrants were consumers of water, food and energy, rather than producing it
* Does Aust have the natural resources and productive capacity to support an ever-expanding population?
* Therefore, did it make sense for Aus to limit migration?
113
The ecology movement was born in response to what?
- Population growth
* Ecology movement emerges at end of 1960s and 1970s (domestic and world wide)
114
By 1971, Australia’s relatively high levels of population growth (mainly through immigration) criticised by ... (name one)
Frank Fenner, Paul Sharp and Max Walsh
o Aus’s population profile was younger than most of Europe which led to a growing population (younger people tend to have more children)
o Growing rate of its population was among the highest in the world between OECD nations by the start of the 1970s
115
Which political party adopted the idea of Zero Population Growth? Who expanded on it?
* Australian Democrats (left of centre political party) - John Coulter, leader in early 1990s – proponent of ZPG since 1970s
* One Nation (right-wing political party adopted the ZPG idea): ‘zero replacement’ (migrant arrivals must be less than departures)
116
What was Tim Flannery's critique of population growth?
romanticises Aboriginal land management and sustainable practices; criticises destruction caused by 200 years of white settlement
* Australia’s arid climate, thin soils = carrying capacity is about 6-12 million people (which had well and truly been surpassed at the time of the book’s writing)
* Believes annual migrant intakes should be less than 30,000 people (or at least be matched by departure levels)
117
Which PM lifted the quota of migrant workers? Why?
John Howard
to fill worker vacancies (both skilled and unskilled)
* Hence by the end of 90’s – 2000s, the annual migrant intake exceeded 200,000 people (so within 4 years that is 1 mil people)
118
What is the problem with Australia's aging population?
* Aust population is ‘aging’ (average age is rising) since population growth was driven by migration and not child birth – ‘baby-boomers’ reaching retirement
o Insufficient workers to replace them (or to care for them) [not enough workers to tax in order to pay for pensions and healthcare for elderly people, also that there would not be enough workers to care for them]
o Aging population requires govt services (medical care, pensions), yet fewer workers to be taxed
o Some felt the solution was the increase migration of young people – Dick Smith described this as a Ponzi scheme
119
What is the projected percentage of people aged 85+ in 2049?
5%
* People aged 65+ as a percentage of the total population
o 1969 – 8%
o 2009 – 13%
o 2049 – 22% [projected %]
* People aged 85+ as a percentage of the total population
o 2009 – 1.5%
o 2049 – 5% [projected %]
120
When could migrants apply for citizenship across the decades?
* 1947: Govt grants permanent resident status to non-Europeans who had lived in Australia continuously for 15 years (NB: could not yet apply for naturalisation/citizenship)
* 1952:
a) Japanese wives of Australian servicemen admitted (5 year permits)
b) 800 non-European refugees allowed to stay
* 1957: Non-Europeans with 15 years residence in Australia allowed to become Aust. citizens (NB: Europeans only had to wait 5 years)
121
In 1966, how did the government began to evaluate how would be a good migrant over the dictation test?
a) Migration applications considered on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to “integrate readily”, and possession of qualifications useful to Australia rather than race or nationality (assimilation was no longer under the Whitlam Gov in the early 1970s)
b) 15 year wait for naturalisation and citizenship rights reduced to 5 years for non-European migrants
122
Name 3 benefits of citizenship
1. You have the full protection and assistance of Aust’s laws at home and of Australian consulates when you travel abroad.
2. You may vote at Federal and State elections.
3. You may seek election to the Federal or State Parliaments, or local governing bodies.
4. You may sit on a jury to try your fellow citizens; you may become a judge or magistrate in Australia’s courts.
5. You may serve with Australia’s armed service and hold any rank.
6. You may own land in any State of Australia.
7. You have the right to become a permanent Government official.
8. You are eligible for all social service benefits.
9. You can sponsor migrants from overseas – bring out family members
123
How many people were reunited with their families in Australian who came under the displaced persons scheme?
‘Operation Reunion’ – 30,000 East European immigrants (UN run scheme to reunite people who came under the displaced persons scheme)
124
What is a critique of why the government accepts so many migrants from communist countries?
because they will be inherently anti-communist which makes them more drawn to anti-communist sentiments such as in the Liberal Party
125
How many Asian migrants that were expelled from Uganda is Australia accept?
* Australia accepts just 198, and only those “who are qualified in professions to practice in Australia and who can be absorbed readily in those professions”
* Idi Amin expels 80,000 ethnic Asians from Uganda (in Africa)
o In 1972 in an ethnic coup for ‘sabotaging’ the economy)
126
What was the significance of the Indochinese refugee migration?
* Tests the dismantlement of the White Aust Policy
* Demonstrates the erosion of Australian sovereignty given our UN obligations
* Aus was not used to refugees turning up on our shores without us going overseas and choosing them and vetting them first
127
When did Vietnamese 'boat people' first arrive in Australia and where?
* 26 April 1976 – first arrival (in Darwin Harbour) of Vietnamese fishing boat carrying 5 people
* They were fleeing communism and they were seeking refuge but did not intend on coming to Australia
* This is under the Fraser Gov
128
Could the first ever Vietnamese 'boat people' apply for permanent residency?
yes (boat people weren't put into detention at this stage)
129
What was the total number of unauthorised arrivals of Vietnamese and Indochinese refugees between 1976-82?
2100 unauthorised arrivals
130
How long could it take before Vietnamese and Indochinese people could apply for citizenship? What was a benefit of this?
* Can apply for citizenship after 2 years – could then sponsor ‘family reunions’
o No longer had to apply for naturalisation after 5 years
131
How many Vietnamese people came to Australia out of the communism crisis?
150,000 total
132
What does Australia do to prevent Vietnamese people from coming to Austalia?
-1975 Aus does not increase its refugee intake quota
* 1978 – Aust negotiates with Malaysia and Indonesia to prevent unauthorised departures from refugee camps; agrees to lift quota on refugee intake
133
What is meant by 'Australia Unlimited'?
Australia's potential was unlimited -making it a great destination for immigration. this slogan dominated the 1920s
134
Name one of two institutions that John Howard Abolished.
1. The Office of Multicultural Affairs
2. Bureau of Immigration Research
