The Japanese Model Flashcards
What are the 4 stages of Public Policy Process
- Input
- Throughput
- Output
- Outcomes
- Revise
What are the public policy domains
- Fiscal Policy
- Economic Policy
- Social Policy
- Foreign Policy
- Security Policy
- Environmental & Technology Policies
What is Karoshi, Black Companies, Ganabru, Abusive Relationship, Work-Life Balance, Ruikatsu, Shukatsu
Karoshi: “death from overwork”
Black Companies: Companies known for exploitative labor practices, such as illegal overtime, unpaid wages, harassment, and abusive management.
Ganbaru: A cultural term meaning “to persevere,” “to do one’s best,” or “to endure hardship.”
Abusive Relationship: Workplace bullying or abuse, often involving superiors exploiting subordinates through intimidation, humiliation, or unreasonable demands.
Work-Life Balance: The effort to balance professional responsibilities with personal life, leisure, and family time.
Ruikatsu: meaning “job-hunting activities for experienced workers” (mid-career or older employees)
Shukatsu: “job-hunting activities,” primarily for university students seeking full-time employment after graduation
What is Hafu, Xenophobia, Japan First Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Nippon Kaigi, Press Freedom Index, Reiwa Shinsengumi, Yasuhiko Funago
Hafu: A Japanese term for individuals of mixed Japanese and non-Japanese ancestry.
Xenophobia: Fear or hostility toward foreigners or perceived outsiders
Japan First Party: The Japan First Party, founded in 2016 by Makoto Sakurai, is a far-right, ultranationalist group promoting anti-immigration and pro-Japanese policies, with minimal political influence but a vocal public presence.
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP): The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), founded in 1955, is Japan’s dominant conservative political party, known for its pro-business policies, strong U.S.-Japan alliance stance, and near-continuous control of government since its inception.
Nippon Kaigi: Nippon Kaigi is Japan’s largest and most influential conservative lobby group, advocating for constitutional revision, patriotic education, traditional family values, and the restoration of national pride rooted in Japan’s imperial history.
Press Freedom Index: As of 2024, Japan ranks 70th out of 180 countries in the World Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders (RSF), marking a decline of two places from the previous year. Japan ranks low in press freedom due to close media-government ties, self-censorship, weak investigative journalism, and laws like the 2014 state secrecy act that discourage critical reporting.
Reiwa Shinsengumi: Reiwa Shinsengumi is a progressive, anti-establishment political party in Japan founded in 2019 by actor-turned-politician Taro Yamamoto, known for advocating social justice, wealth redistribution, disability rights, and opposition to neoliberal and pro-corporate policies.
Yasuhiko Funago: Yasuhiko Funago, diagnosed with ALS, made history in 2019 as the first person with the disease elected to Japan’s National Diet, where he advocates for disability rights and inclusivity through the Reiwa Shinsengumi party.
What is the Japanese Hybrid System?
Local constituencies press local issues (clientelism): Politicians exchange local benefits (e.g., infrastructure, subsidies) for votes via koenkai (personal support networks). Favors rural areas.
SNTV elections > shifts to parallel (MMM) system
- SNTV: Single Non-Transferable Vote: Voters pick 1 candidate in multi-member districts; top n win. Problems: Factionalism, corruption, intra-party competition.
- Switch to MMM: To reduce corruption, weaken koenkai, and stabilize party competition. Result: LDP kept power by dominating SMDs.
- MMM: Single-member districts (SMDs): Winner-takes-all (289 seats). Proportional representation (PR): Party-list voting (176 seats).
What was LKY learn for Japan campaign 1979-1981
Industrialized, obedient: Lee Kuan Yew admired Japan’s rapid industrialization and the disciplined work ethic of its people. He sought to instill similar values in Singaporeans, emphasizing hard work, thrift, and sacrifice as core societal values .
Non-Western, Non-Communist: Lee Kuan Yew admired Japan as a model of non-Western, non-Communist modernization—achieving rapid industrialization and social cohesion without adopting Western liberal democracy or Communist ideology. This perspective influenced Singapore’s development strategy, emphasizing pragmatic governance, meritocracy, and community over individualism.
LKY: Restructuring unions to not challenge PAP: To align labor unions with the ruling People’s Action Party (PAP), Lee restructured them to prevent challenges to the government’s authority. This move aimed to ensure industrial harmony and prevent labor unrest, mirroring Japan’s approach to labor relations .
Japanese firms brought to Singapore: Recognizing Japan’s economic prowess, Singapore actively attracted Japanese firms to set up operations in the country. This not only boosted Singapore’s industrial base but also facilitated the transfer of technology and management practices from Japan .
Setting up a neighborhood police system: Inspired by Japan’s community-based policing model, Lee Kuan Yew introduced the Koban system in Singapore. In 1981, he invited Japanese cooperation to establish neighborhood police posts, fostering closer ties between the police and the community to enhance public safety and trust .
How did Japan catch up to the West?
Meiji Revolution of 1868: The Meiji Restoration in 1868 overthrew the feudal Tokugawa shogunate and restored the Emperor as a symbolic leader. This marked the beginning of Japan’s rapid modernization under the slogan “Civilization and Enlightenment.” The new government sent missions abroad to study Western systems and implemented sweeping reforms to transform Japan into a modern state.
Industrial Policy: Japan’s industrialization was driven by state-led policies that strategically targeted key industries. The government imported Western technology but adapted it to local needs, while fostering the growth of powerful conglomerates called zaibatsu. Agencies like the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) played a central role in guiding economic development.
National Competitiveness: Japan focused on export-oriented growth, supported by high savings and investment rates. The education system was aligned with industrial needs, and a strong emphasis on manufacturing quality helped Japanese products compete globally. This disciplined approach allowed Japan to rapidly close the gap with Western economies.
Focus on being a ‘Rich Country, Strong Military’: The Meiji government pursued a dual policy of economic and military development under the slogan Fukoku Kyohei (“Rich Country, Strong Army”). While adopting Western technology and institutions, Japan maintained its cultural identity and eventually used its growing power for imperial expansion.
Wise Senior Leaders (Genroku): A small group of former samurai, known as the genro, acted as senior advisors behind the scenes. Figures like Ito Hirobumi and Yamagata Aritomo balanced Westernization with tradition, ensuring stability during Japan’s dramatic transformation from a feudal society to a modern power.
Consensus: Widely agreed upon goals, Japan’s success relied on strong national unity around shared goals. Businesses, government, and workers cooperated closely, and policies like lifetime employment ensured social stability. This collective effort prioritized national progress over individual interests.
Governance is results-oriented: The Meiji leadership was highly pragmatic, experimenting with policies and adopting foreign best practices where useful. A meritocratic bureaucracy ensured efficient implementation, allowing Japan to modernize at an unprecedented pace.
Military Aggression, Conquest, Colonization: Japan’s economic and military growth led to aggressive expansion, including wars with China (1895) and Russia (1905), the annexation of Korea (1910), and the invasion of Manchuria (1930s). This imperial ambition culminated in Japan’s disastrous involvement in World War II.
Key concept of how Japan caught up to the West: Japan combined selective Westernization with state-guided capitalism, maintaining national unity under a results-focused government. While economic and military growth propelled Japan to great-power status, its imperial ambitions ultimately led to tragedy.
What is the Japanese Style Liberal Democracy
System was imposed on Japan after WW2: Japan’s current democratic system was imposed by Allied Occupation authorities after World War II. This included drafting a new constitution that established universal suffrage, civil liberties, and dismantled the imperial military apparatus. The reforms created fundamentally democratic institutions while maintaining the Emperor as a symbolic figurehead.
Highly egalitarian land reforms also imposed: The Occupation implemented radical land redistribution that broke up large estates and created a nation of small landowning farmers. This egalitarian reform helped stabilize rural areas and created a conservative voting base that would later support the LDP’s long political dominance.
Bicameral Parliament: Japan has a bicameral Diet consisting of the powerful House of Representatives (lower house) and the House of Councillors (upper house). While both chambers are elected, the lower house holds greater authority including the power to select the Prime Minister and override upper house vetoes.
Universal suffrage, multi-party elections: While Japan has regular multi-party elections with universal suffrage, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has dominated politics since 1955 except for brief interruptions. Competition occurs mainly between LDP factions rather than between ideologically distinct parties, though opposition parties like the DPJ have occasionally won power.
Press freedom, but strong government influence over media: Japan has constitutional press freedoms but media outlets often practice self-censorship, particularly regarding sensitive topics like the imperial family or nuclear power. The press club system and close government-media relationships create subtle pressures that influence coverage.
One Party Dominance, LDP from 1950s to today: The LDP’s enduring rule stems from its flexible ideology, effective patronage networks, and ability to absorb opposition policies. Its factional system allows internal debate while maintaining party unity, and its rural electoral base benefits from targeted spending and protectionist policies.
Frequent changes in Prime Ministers: Despite the LDP’s continuous rule, Japan experiences frequent leadership changes due to the party’s factional dynamics. Prime Ministers often resign after short terms due to scandals, policy failures, or intra-party pressure rather than electoral defeat.
Recent years, DPJ came into power once (2009 elections): Opposition parties like the DPJ have struggled due to organizational weaknesses, policy vagueness, and inability to match LDP patronage networks. The DPJ’s 2009-2012 government ended disastrously, reinforcing the LDP’s claim to be the only competent governing party.
Competition mainly between different factions (zoku) of LDP: The LDP maintains power through internal factions that rotate leadership and divide policy responsibilities. These factions share election resources while distributing political patronage. This system creates stable one-party rule where internal competition substitutes for party alternation. The result is a unified LDP that consistently dominates Japanese politics.
Predominance of Clientelism: Japanese politics remains heavily influenced by patronage relationships where politicians deliver benefits to specific constituencies in exchange for electoral support. This manifests in agricultural subsidies, public works projects, and the koenkai support networks that sustain LDP dominance.
What is Japan Electoral System
MMM for House of Representatives (62% SMP, 38% PR-list)
What is the Japanese political economy
First priority is economic development
Government run contests, maximize competitiveness
State supports export-oriented manufacturing firms
MITI served as a coordinating ‘pilot agency’: The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) strategically coordinated industries, acting as the economy’s “command center” during high growth.
Strong economic growth from 1920s to 1980s
Economic recession 1990s to early 2000s: The model stagnated during the “Lost Decade” as protected sectors resisted reform and financial systems faltered.
Balance of protection and development: Japan carefully calibrated market openings - shielding infant industries while forcing eventual global competitiveness.
Dual Economy: A modern export sector (autos/electronics) coexisted with inefficient domestic sectors (agriculture/retail), creating persistent imbalances.
What is Japan’s Developmental Side
Postal savings: Japan’s postal savings network mobilized massive household savings, providing the state with low-cost capital for strategic investments.
Low-interest funds targeted to key industries/infrastructure
Performance-based subsidies: rewarding export success and technology adoption while punishing underachievers (Failure meant losing access to subsidies, contracts, and growth opportunities—a death sentence in Japan’s coordinated economy.)
Acquisition of foreign technology: Japan systematically acquired foreign patents/know-how while forbidding equity-based FDI that could enable foreign control.
Exclusion of import duties: Import duties shielded infant industries until they achieved global competitiveness, as seen in auto (1950s-60s) and semiconductor (1970s) sectors.
What is Japan’s protection side?
Low levels of immigration: Japan maintained minimal immigration to shield domestic workers from foreign competition while preserving cultural cohesion, only permitting limited exceptions for ethnic Japanese laborers.
Discriminatory Tariffs: The government imposed steep tariffs on foreign manufactured goods while keeping raw material imports inexpensive to benefit domestic manufacturers.
Preferential Commodity Taxes: Special commodity tax structures deliberately made Japanese goods cheaper than imported equivalents through preferential tax rates.
Import Restrictions
Foreign Currency Controls: Businesses required government approval for foreign currency conversion until the 1980s, preventing capital outflows and overseas acquisitions.
Small businesses, construction, farmers protected: Legislation like the Large-Scale Retail Store Law restricted supermarket chains to protect neighborhood mom-and-pop stores. The construction sector maintained closed bidding practices that guaranteed public works projects went to domestic firms. Japanese farmers received extraordinary protection, with rice imports effectively banned through tariffs as high as 778%.
How is the Japanese state and Social Affairs?
Weak state on social issues: The Japanese state traditionally minimized direct welfare spending, relying instead on corporate benefits and family support systems to meet social needs
Higher taxes on profits and property than on income: Japan imposes heavier taxes on corporate profits and property than personal income, reflecting its growth-first philosophy while maintaining a narrow tax base that limits revenue.
Narrow tax base generates little revenue
‘Welfare through work’: Most social protections came through lifetime employment at major firms rather than government programs, leaving non-regular workers vulnerable.
Public infrastructure and construction projects: Massive construction programs served as hidden unemployment relief and rural patronage while avoiding direct welfare spending.
Rural communities have more influence: Electoral malapportionment gives rural voters disproportionate influence, directing resources to agricultural regions at urban taxpayers’ expense.
Families take greater care of their members
Social welfare provided by unpaid wives and daughters: Tax deductions and spousal benefits incentivize single-earner households, institutionalizing women’s unpaid care work.
Tax and wage systems favor male-breadwinner families
What is the Japanese Political Ideology
Individual sacrifices for the collective: Japanese political thought consistently emphasizes individual sacrifices for collective good, seen in workplace culture accepting long hours for company success, community-first disaster responses, and policies favoring stability over personal freedoms.
Fruits of economic growth should be shared: The postwar social contract assumed fruits of growth would be shared through corporate structures (lifetime employment, seniority wages) rather than state welfare, creating a unique “welfare-through-work” system that’s now strained by economic stagnation.
Close connections between bureaucracy and politicians: Japan’s elite ministries draft most legislation while politicians mediate interests, forming an “iron triangle” with big business that blurs formal governance divisions - a system now challenged by demands for transparency.
What is the 21st Century Japanese partial tuen towards neoliberalism
Tax cuts on upper income earners have increased inequality
More employees on temporary work contracts: job security compromised
Declining trust in government: Neoliberal reforms (e.g., privatization, welfare cuts) alienated voters, especially after the 2008 crisis and Fukushima disaster exposed policy failures, fueling disillusionment with both LDP and opposition parties
Gender inequality remains high: Despite rhetoric of “womenomics,” neoliberal labor flexibility pushed women into precarious part-time roles, with Japan ranking 125th in the 2023 Global Gender Gap Index due to entrenched corporate patriarchy
Problem of under-employment: 20% of workers are involuntarily part-time (“overqualified baristas”) due to corporate cost-cutting
Rising homelessness: Cuts to public housing and mental health services doubled visible homelessness in major cities since 2010
Ageing society: Pension reforms and reduced elder care funding shifted burdens to families, while younger workers face unstable jobs unable to support aging parents, deepening intergenerational inequality
To what extent is Japan egalitarian or hierarchical?
Japan exhibits a paradoxical blend of egalitarianism and hierarchy:
Hierarchical: Strong bureaucratic and corporate structures emphasize seniority (e.g., keiretsu networks, elite Tokyo University graduates dominating ministries)
Egalitarian: Postwar land reforms (1947) and universal healthcare (1961) reduced wealth gaps, while lifetime employment (until the 1990s) fostered income stability
Steinmo’s view: Japan’s “conservative egalitarianism” combines meritocratic bureaucracy with corporate welfare, but neoliberal reforms since the 1990s have exacerbated inequality
What is the political party structure like in Japan?
Japan’s system is LDP-dominated with weak opposition:
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP): Ruled almost continuously since 1955, leveraging factional politics (habatsu) and clientelism (e.g., rural subsidies)
Opposition fragmentation: Parties like the Constitutional Democratic Party (CDP) lack cohesion; the DPJ’s 2009–2012 rule ended in failure due to inexperience
Steinmo’s insight: The LDP’s adaptability—absorbing opposition policies (e.g., welfare expansion in the 1970s)—explains its resilience
What are the key features of “Japan, Inc.”?
The term describes Japan’s state-guided capitalism:
MITI/METI leadership: Industrial policy targeted exports (e.g., autos, electronics) via subsidies and protectionism
Keiretsu: Cross-shareholding among firms and banks ensured stability but stifled innovation
Decline: The 1990s “Lost Decade” exposed flaws (e.g., zombie firms, deflation)
How does Japan’s welfare state function?
Japan’s welfare model is employment-centric:
“Welfare through work”: Lifetime employment and corporate benefits (e.g., housing, pensions) reduced state welfare reliance
Universal healthcare: Adopted in 1961, funded by employer/employee premiums and taxes
Aging crisis: Elderly care now strains the system, with reforms (e.g., 2000 Long-Term Care Insurance) only partially effective
How does ideology permeate Japanese politics?
Pragmatism over dogma: The LDP prioritizes stability and growth, avoiding rigid ideology
Nationalist undercurrents: Factions like Nippon Kaigi push constitutional revision (e.g., Article 9)
Steinmo’s take: Japan’s ideology is adaptive—e.g., embracing neoliberalism post-1990s while retaining protectionism
What historical patterns have led to the modern Japanese form of government?
Meiji Restoration (1868): Centralized state to counter Western imperialism
Post-WWII reforms: U.S. Occupation imposed democracy (1947 Constitution), but bureaucratic continuity persisted
1955 System: LDP-bureaucracy-business “iron triangle” cemented developmentalism
What explains the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)’s long-term political influence?
Clientelism: Rural voters rewarded with infrastructure projects
Factional balance: Internal competition (e.g., Tanaka vs. Fukuda factions) prevented schisms
Crisis management: Adapted to shocks (e.g., 1973 oil crisis, 2011 tsunami)
How has Japan shifted since the 1990s? Have things improved or worsened?
Worsened: Neoliberal reforms (e.g., labor flexibilization) increased inequality and precarious work
Improved: Corporate restructuring (e.g., Abenomics) revived exports but failed to boost wages
Steinmo’s verdict: Japan’s “stagnation” reflects institutional inertia, not collapse
How does the tax structure of Japan impact inequality?
Regressive taxes: Heavy reliance on consumption tax (now 10%) hurts low-income households
Corporate favors: Tax cuts for large firms (e.g., under Koizumi) widened wealth gaps
