Coastal Landscapes And Processes (physical) Flashcards
What is abrasion?
A form of erosion where loose material, pebbles and sediment ‘sandpaper’ the walls and floors of a river, cliff or glacier.
What is attrition?
Rocks and pebbles continuously hit against each other, causing them to break into smaller rocks until they become sediment.
Define backshore.
The upper beach closest to the land, including any cliffs or sand dunes.
What is beach nourishment?
The addition of sand and sediment to an eroding beach by humans.
What is biological weathering?
Rocks are broken apart by growing vegetation and roots, microbes, or chemical reactions from animal faeces.
Define concordant coast.
A coastline where bands of alternate geology run parallel to the coast.
What is corrasion?
A form of mechanical erosion where material and sediment in the sea is flung at the cliff-face.
What is chemical weathering?
The weak acid in rainwater dissolves chemical compounds in the rock.
Define discordant coast.
A coastline where bands of alternate geology run perpendicular to the shore.
What is fetch?
The length of water over which the wind has travelled.
What is freeze-thaw weathering?
A form of physical sub-aerial weathering where water freezes in the cracks of a rock, expands and enlarges the crack.
Define geology.
The physical structure and arrangement of a rock.
What is a groyne?
A form of hard-engineering that encourages the trapping of sediment to reduce erosion.
What is hard management?
The use of concrete structures to reduce or halt the recession of a coastline.
Define highlands.
An area of land that is at a high elevation and tends to have a larger relief.
What is hydraulic action?
The pressure of compressed air forced into the cracks of a rock face causes the rock to weaken.
What is igneous rock?
Rock that has formed from volcanic activity, often cooled magma on the Earth’s surface.
Define impermeable rock.
A rock that does not allow water to pass through it.
What is longshore drift?
The transportation of sediment along a beach determined by the direction of the prevailing wind.
Define lowlands.
An area of land that has a small relief, so tends to be flat and at a low elevation.
What is mass movement?
A large, downhill movement of material usually from a cliff-face caused by gravity.
What is mechanical weathering?
The breakdown of rocks due to forces and not chemical reactions.
What is metamorphic rock?
Rock formed under intense pressure and heat, often close to tectonic plate boundaries.
Define permeable rock.
A rock that allows water to pass through it.
What is relief?
The difference in the height of land for a particular region.
What is rock armour?
Large rocks or concrete blocks used as barricades to reduce marine erosion.
What is saltation?
A form of sediment transportation where smaller rocks/pebbles are pushed along the seabed by currents.
Define salt marsh.
In sheltered bays or behind spits, salt and minerals will build up.
What is a sand dune?
A depositional landform where sand and sediment build up around driftwood.
What is a sea wall?
A hard-management coastal defense that redirects wave energy.
What is sedimentary rock?
Formed from the broken remains of sediment and other rocks that have compressed together.
What is soft management?
The use of natural materials and environmentally sustainable approaches to reduce coastal recession.
What is solution in geological terms?
Slightly acidic water dissolves chemicals from a rock face and transports these dissolved materials.
What is suspension in sediment transport?
Small rocks that are light enough to float are carried in the water.
Define spit.
A long depositional landform formed from sand and shingle.
What is traction?
Large rocks and boulders are rolled along the bed of the river or sea.
Define weathering
Breakdown of rocks
What are rock falls
When pieces of rock from a weathered cliff fall due to the undercut of waves
What is slumping
After long periods of rainfall, it weakens the soil and permeable rock causing them to slump down the slope in large sections
What is sliding
Large amounts of soil and rock move down the slope rapidly
What is eroded material transported by
Different processes depending on the size of the material and the amount of energy in the wave
When does deposition occur
When there isn’t i=enough energy for the waves to carry the eroded material any further
What are the two types of waves
Destructive
Constructive
What are the characteristics of a constructive wave?
Low energy
Stronger swashes than back washes
Convex beach
Long wavelength
Shallow gradient waves
Low energy
Constructs beach forms wide strip beach
What are the characteristics of a destructive wave
High energy and frequency
Wave has travelled over a large fetch
Concave beach
Stronger backwash and weak swash
Destroys beach
Short wavelength
Creates steep beach
What is swash
When a wave washes up to the shoreline
What is backwash
When the water from a wave retreats back into the ocean
What are the 5 coastal processes
Mass movement, erosion, deposition, transportation, weathering
What does TED stand for
Transportation, erosion, deposition
What is a coastline
Where the land meets the sea, narrow boundary
What are waves created by
Wind
What are waves determined by
Wind strength, wind duration and distance it travels over the watch (fetch)
What are the 4 types of coastal erosion
Hydraulic action, abrasion, solution, attrition
What are the three coastal landforms created by erosion
Headlands/bays
Wave cut notches/wave cut platforms
Cave, arch, stack, stump (at a headland)
What is the 5 steps of the process to form a headland/bay
• Bands of hard and soft rock are arranged at right angles to the coastline (discordant coastline).
• Soft rock erodes faster through processes like hydraulic action and abrasion, forming a bay.
• Hard rock erodes more slowly, leaving it jutting out as a headland.
• Waves lose energy in the bay, leading to deposition and often the formation of a beach.
• Headlands are more exposed to wave energy, leading to more erosion and the formation of features like cliffs, caves, arches, and stacks.
How is a crack formed in a headland
Destructive waves break against the headland and lines of weakness such as joints or faults are attacked
This then forms a cave over time due to hydraulic action and abrasion weakening it
How is a arch formed in a headland
Waves continue to erode the cave
When the waves break it blocks the entrance of the cave which then traps air
Air is compressed and breaks away sides of the other side of the cave which leads to an arch being formed
How is a stack/stump formed in a headland
Waves and erosion widens arch which builds pressure at the top of the arch
The weakened roof of the arch collapses under pressure leaving a stack
Further erosion and weathering may cause the pinnacle to collapse and often leaves a small stump covered by high tide
What is a wave cut notch
• A wave-cut notch is a small indentation at the base of a cliff, formed by erosion (especially hydraulic action and abrasion).
What is a wave cut platform
• A wave-cut platform is a flat, gently sloping area of rock left behind as the cliff retreats.
How is a wave cut notch formed
• Waves hit the cliff face, eroding it between the high and low tide marks.
• Over time, this creates a notch that gets deeper, weakening the cliff above.
How is a wave cut platform formed
• It forms after repeated collapses caused by the erosion at the wave-cut notch.
• As the cliff erodes and collapses backward, the former base of the cliff is exposed, forming the platform.
What is the process of longshore drift
• Waves hit the coast at an angle (due to prevailing wind).
• The swash carries material up the beach at that angle.
• The backwash pulls material straight down the beach (due to gravity).
• This zigzag movement moves sediment along the coast.
• This process is called longshore drift.
How are beaches formed
When eroded material is transported by longshore drift and deposited by constructive waves along the coast
Where are pebble beaches found
Often found where cliff are being eroded
What is berm
A ridge of sand and shingle, marks the normal high tide
How are spits formed
• Longshore drift moves sediment along the coast.
• Where the coastline changes direction (e.g. at a river mouth), sediment is deposited.
• A spit starts to form, growing out into the sea.
• The end of the spit curves due to winds or wave direction changes.
• A salt marsh may form in the sheltered area behind the spit.
What is a bar
A ridge of sand or shingle around the entrance of a mouth of a river
What is a lagoon
Fresh water trapped behind a bar
What are the distinctive landscapes found along the Dorset coastline (case study)
Durdle door (arch)
Lulworth cove (cove)
Chesil beach (beach)
Old harry rocks (long bay with stacks and stumps)
Soft rock (clay and sands)
Hard rock (chalk and limestone)
What is the distribution like of coastal erosion in the Uk
Coastal erosion in the UK is mostly found on the east and south coasts, where the cliffs are made of softer rocks like clay and sand.
What do geographers predict might happen to coastal erosion by 2080?
Rates of erosion and recession are expected to increase because of rising sea levels and increased storms due to climate change
What are the causes and effects of rising sea levels in the uk
Cause:
Past 100 years sea level has risen by 12 cm along coastline of the English Channel
Levels are expected to rise another 11-16 cm by 2030 due to global warming
Effects:
Cliffs that are currently undercut will continue to retreat
Areas of soft coastline (clay and gravel) may experience erosion more rapidly due to frequent and stronger storms
What are the causes and effects of storms/storm surges
Causes:
• Strong winds from storms push seawater towards the coast.
• Low air pressure raises sea levels (less pressure holding it down).
• High tides combine with the storm to make sea levels even higher.
• Climate change increases storm frequency and intensity
Effects:
- Coastal flooding damages homes, businesses, and farmland.
• Erosion increases, causing cliffs and beaches to wear away.
• Transport links like roads and railways may be destroyed.
• Saltwater can pollute freshwater and soil.
• Economic loss from repair costs and business disruptio
what are the causes of human activities on the coastline?
• Coastal development (e.g. building houses, hotels, ports)
→ increases erosion by removing natural defences like sand dunes.
• Coastal defences (e.g. sea walls, groynes)
→ can protect one area but increase erosion further along (called terminal groyne syndrome).
• Tourism
→ heavy foot traffic damages sand dunes and vegetation, making the coast more vulnerable to erosion.
• Dredging (removing sand/shingle for construction or navigation)
→ reduces beach size, which weakens natural protection against waves.
• Agriculture (farming close to the coast)
→ removes natural vegetation; exposed soil can be easily washed away by rain into the sea (called coastal runoff).
• Climate change (caused by human pollution)
→ leads to sea-level rise and more frequent storms, making coastal erosion much faster.
What are the effects of human activity on the coastline?
• Increased erosion
→ Cliffs collapse faster (e.g. Holderness Coast is eroding at 2m per year).
• Loss of habitats
→ Wetlands, sand dunes, and marshes are destroyed (e.g. salt marshes in Essex disappearing).
• Flooding risks rise
→ Low-lying areas (e.g. Norfolk coast) are at greater risk of permanent flooding.
• Economic damage
→ Homes, businesses, and farmland are lost (e.g. Happisburgh in Norfolk has lost dozens of houses).
• Need for expensive coastal management
→ Councils have to spend millions on sea defences (e.g. sea walls at Blackpool cost over £60 million).
• Conflict between groups
→ Some want to protect coasts (e.g. local homeowners), others prefer managed retreat to let nature take its cours
What are the effects of coastal recession on people?
• Loss of homes
→ Whole villages can be lost to the sea (e.g. Happisburgh, Norfolk — dozens of homes lost).
• Economic loss
→ Properties lose value; insurance costs rise or becomes unavailable.
• Damage to infrastructure
→ Roads, railways, and utilities (e.g. gas pipes) get destroyed, cutting off communities.
• Loss of farmland
→ Productive agricultural land eroded away, affecting farmers’ livelihoods.
• Psychological impacts
→ Anxiety, depression, and stress for people living close to rapidly eroding cliffs.
• Increased costs for coastal defences
→ Local councils must pay millions for sea walls, rock armour, or managed retreat.
• Forced migration
→ Some residents have to relocate permanently, breaking up communities.
What are the effects of coastal recession on the environment?
• Loss of habitats
→ Coastal ecosystems like dunes, salt marshes, and mudflats are eroded or drowned.
• Reduced biodiversity
→ Species that depend on coastal environments (e.g. birds, insects) lose breeding and feeding grounds.
• Disruption of natural processes
→ Sediment transport changes, affecting beaches and river estuaries elsewhere.
• Increased coastal flooding
→ Natural barriers like dunes disappear, making inland areas more vulnerable to storm surges.
• Pollution risks
→ As cliffs collapse, old landfill sites and waste buried near coasts can leak into the sea.
• Creation of new landforms (positive)
→ Sometimes, erosion creates new habitats like lagoons, salt marshes, and spits (e.g. Spurn Head at Holderness).
What are the 4 management strategies and approaches?
Do nothing (no intervention)
Hold the line - maintain existing shoreline by building defences
Retreat the line - allow shoreline to change naturally but manage and direct process
Advance the line - build new defences on seaward side
Soft engineering techniques for coastal management
Beach nourishment
Sand dune regeneration
What is beach nourishment
Sand and shingle is added to beach to make it higher or wider
What are the advantages of using beach nourishment as a soft engineering technique?
• Natural appearance
→ Blends in with the natural environment — no ugly concrete structures.
• Protects the coastline
→ Absorbs wave energy, reducing erosion and flooding risk.
• Supports tourism
→ Creates wider, attractive beaches which boost local tourism and economy.
• Relatively cheap (short term)
→ Lower initial costs compared to building sea walls.
• Environmentally friendly
→ No hard barriers, so natural processes like longshore drift can continue.
What are the disadvantages of using beach nourishment as soft engineering coastal management?
• High maintenance
→ Needs to be replaced regularly as sand is easily washed away by storms and tides.
• Expensive (long term)
→ Repeated replenishment costs can add up to more than hard engineering over time.
• Disruption to wildlife
→ Dredging sand from the seabed can destroy marine habitats.
• Short-term solution
→ Doesn’t stop erosion, just delays its effects.
• May affect sediment elsewhere
→ If sediment is removed offshore, it might cause erosion problems in other coastal areas.
What is sand dune regeneration?
Grasses, bushes and trees are planted to stabilise dunes
What are the advantages of using sand dune regeneration for coastal management?
• Natural barrier
→ Sand dunes absorb wave energy, reducing erosion and flooding naturally.
• Creates important habitats
→ Supports rare plants, insects, and bird species (boosts biodiversity).
• Relatively cheap
→ Much cheaper than building sea walls or rock armour.
• Sustainable
→ If managed properly (e.g. with fencing and planting marram grass), dunes can maintain themselves long term.
• Aesthetic benefits
→ Looks natural and attractive, improving the beauty of the coastline for to
What are the disadvantages of using sand dune regeneration for coastal management?
• Takes time
→ Dunes take years to develop fully and become stable enough to protect the coast.
• Easily damaged
→ Foot traffic (tourists, dogs, bikes) can easily destroy young dunes without proper protection.
• Ongoing maintenance needed
→ Requires constant monitoring, fencing, and replanting to stay effective.
• Limited protection
→ Not suitable for all coastlines — strong storms can easily flatten dunes.
• Public resistance
→ Fences, boardwalks, and restricted access can annoy visitors who want to walk on the beach freely.
What are the 5 hard engineering techniques used for coastal management?
Sea walls
Groynes
Rip raps
Gabions
Revetments
What are sea walls
Concrete walls 3-4 m, sometimes curved to reflect the waves back to the sea
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sea walls on coastal management?
Advantages of Sea Walls:
• Very effective at protecting the coast
→ Strong barrier against erosion and flooding.
• Long lifespan
→ Can last for decades if properly maintained.
• Gives people confidence
→ Protects valuable property, businesses, and infrastructure.
Disadvantages of Sea Walls:
• Very expensive
→ High construction and maintenance costs.
• Unnatural and ugly
→ Can spoil the appearance of the coastline, affecting tourism.
• Can cause erosion elsewhere
→ Waves bounce off the wall (wave reflection), eroding the beach in front and nearby areas.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of groynes on coastal management?
Advantages of Groynes:
• Trap sediment
→ Build up beaches, which absorb wave energy and protect the coast.
• Boost tourism
→ Wider beaches attract more visitors.
• Relatively cheap
→ Less expensive than sea walls and can last a long time
Disadvantages of Groynes:
• Interrupt longshore drift
→ Starve beaches further down the coast of sediment, causing erosion elsewhere.
• Unnatural appearance
→ Can look ugly and spoil the natural beauty of the coastline.
• Maintenance needed
→ Can be damaged by storms and need repairs over time.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of rip raps on coastal management?
Advantages of Rip Rap:
• Absorbs wave energy
→ Reduces erosion and protects cliffs and beaches.
• Cheaper than sea walls
→ Costs less to build and maintain.
• Quick to install
→ Can be placed rapidly after storms or emergencies.
Disadvantages of Rip Rap:
• Can look ugly
→ Large boulders spoil the natural coastline.
• Dangerous for people
→ Can be hazardous to climb or walk over.
• Can shift in strong storms
→ Needs occasional maintenance to reposition rocks.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of revetments on coastal management?
Advantages of Revetments:
• Absorb wave energy
→ Reduce erosion by breaking the force of the waves.
• Cheaper than sea walls
→ Cost less to build and maintain.
• Allow some natural processes
→ Let water drain through, reducing pressure on the coast.
Disadvantages of Revetments:
• Still expensive
→ Not as costly as sea walls but still a big investment.
• Visually unattractive
→ Can spoil the natural look of the coastline.
• Can be damaged by strong storms
→ Need regular maintenance and repairs.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of gabions on coastal management?
Advantages of Gabions:
• Absorb wave energy
→ Reduce erosion by breaking up the force of the waves.
• Cheap and quick to build
→ Much cheaper than sea walls or revetments.
• Flexible and easy to repair
→ Damaged cages can be fixed individually without major work.
Disadvantages of Gabions:
• Unattractive appearance
→ Wire cages and rocks can look messy and unnatural.
• Shorter lifespan
→ Wire can rust or break, especially in salty sea conditions.
• Can become dangerous
→ Broken cages or sharp wires can harm people and wildlife.
What are groynes
Wooden or rock structures built along the beach at right angles
What are rip raps
(Rock armour)
Large boulders at the foot or at the top of the beach
what are revetments?
Sloping structures built along the base of the cliff
What are gabions
Metal wire cages with rocks
What is the holderness coastline
• Location: Eastern England, stretches from Flamborough Head in the north to Spurn Head in the south, in Yorkshire.
• Length: Around 61 km long.
• Type of Coastline: It’s a sedimentary coastline made mostly of boulder clay (soft rock), which makes it prone to erosion.
• Holderness Coast erodes by 2 meters per year.
• Spurn Head is a key example of a spit formed by longshore drift.
• Coastal defences are expensive and often cause problems elsewhere, like terminal groyne syndrome.
• Tourism and farming are key parts of the economy, but erosion threatens both.
What is the coastal management like at holderness
• Hard Engineering:
• Sea Walls: E.g. at Hornsea; prevent flooding but can cause erosion elsewhere.
• Groynes: E.g. at Mappleton; help build up beaches but can cause erosion further south.
• Rip Rap: Large boulders to absorb wave energy.
• Soft Engineering: • Managed Retreat: Areas like Spurn Head allow natural erosion, leading to the creation of new habitats. • Beach Nourishment: Adding sand to beaches to build them up, used in areas like Bridlington.
What are the key features of the holderness coastline
• Flamborough Head:
• Headland with white chalk cliffs, resistant to erosion compared to other areas.
• Features stacks and arches (e.g. Selwick’s Bay).
• Boulder Clay Cliffs: • Soft cliffs erode easily, leading to dramatic loss of land. • Erosion rate: up to 2 meters per year. • Spurn Head: • Spit formed by deposition at the mouth of the Humber Estuary. • Acts as a natural barrier for the coastline, protecting land behind it.
Causes of coastal erosion at holderness
• Geology:
• Boulder clay is easily eroded by the sea.
• Cliffs are mainly made of soft materials, which erode quickly compared to harder rocks.
• Wave Action:
• The area is exposed to strong waves from the North Sea, which increases erosion.
• Longshore drift moves sediment southwards, which means sand and pebbles are removed from some areas and build up in others.
• Storms:
• Storm surges and extreme weather events contribute to rapid erosion, especially in vulnerable areas.
Human impact on the holderness coastline
• Coastal Development:
• The area has many villages and farms close to the coast, increasing vulnerability to erosion.
• Tourism: • Popular with tourists due to features like Flamborough Head and Bridlington. • Sea Defences: • Some parts of the coast have hard engineering (e.g. sea walls, groynes), but these often have limited effectiveness and can cause problems elsewhere (e.g. terminal groyne syndrome). • Hornsea and Mappleton have been protected with sea walls and rock armour, but nearby areas are still eroding. • Land Loss: • Loss of farmland (e.g. near Mappleton), with farmland being eroded by the sea.
