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A Level Biology B2 > Overall > Flashcards

Overall Flashcards

1
Q

What are the key structures of the nucleus?

A

The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which contains nuclear pores that regulate the movement of substances in and out. Inside, the nucleoplasm supports the chromosomes, which carry genetic information, and the nucleolus, where ribosomal RNA is produced.

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2
Q

What is the function of rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Has lots of ribosomes on surface for protein synthesis. Produces proteins that are secreted or incorporated into cellular membrane.

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3
Q

What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Processes proteins and lipids that are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum. It adds carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins, packages enzymes and labels molecules for their specific needs.

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4
Q

What is the role of the inner membrane of mitochondria in aerobic respiration?

A

Hosts the electron transport chain and the ATP Synthase, which are essential for the oxidation of phosphorylation. leading into the production of ATP.

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5
Q

What are ribosomes made of and located?

A

Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins.

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6
Q

What is the function of Vacuoles?

A

Filled with a fluid which helps the cell be turgid, that helps maintain the plant cells structure. Additional they can store sugars, amino acids and the pigments.

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7
Q

What the main structure of chloroplasts?

A

Contain thylakoid membranes, which are stacked to form grana, where the light-dependent reaction. The stroma is the fluid surrounding these membranes, where light-independent reaction occurred.

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8
Q

Main component of cell wall in fungi and plants?

A

Cellulose provides structural strength to plant cells from bursting when water enters through osmosis.
Fungi use chitin serves a similar purpose to increase the rigidity of the cell walls

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9
Q

What are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic- smaller size, lacking membrane-bound organelle and the ribosomes are smaller (70s) and the DNA is a single loop in contrast to eukaryotic complex structure.

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10
Q

What are the main components of a virus?

A

Genetic material at its core, surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid, and may have additional proteins on its surface that helps attach to host cells.

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11
Q

Key method to study cells

A

Microscopy and cell fractionation

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12
Q

What are the three main types of microscopes?

A

Optical microscopes. transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscope.

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13
Q

What are the conditions required for preparing cells for fractionation?

A

Cold, Isotonic and Buffered Solution

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14
Q

Replication of prokaryotic cells?

A

Binary Fission

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15
Q

How do viruses replicate within a host cell?

A

Viruses replicate by injecting their nucleic acid into the host cell, which hijacks the host’s cellular machinery to replicate the virus

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16
Q

Longest stage of cell cycle?

A

Interphase

17
Q

What are the main parts of interphase?

A

G1- cell growth and organelle doubling
S1- DNA replication
G2- further growth and preparation for mitosis including error checking the DNA

18
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

Cytoplasm divides to form two new cells after mitosis

19
Q

What are the four main stages of mitosis?

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase

20
Q

Function of mitosis and stages?

A

Prophase involves chromosomes condensation and spindle fibre formation
Metaphase- aligns chromosomes at the cell equator
Anaphase- separates chromatids to opposite poles
Telophase- reforms the nucleus and prepares for cytoplasmic division.

21
Q

Two main stages of binary fission?

A

Replication of circular DNA and plasmids, followed by division of the cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells

22
Q

What are the two types of proteins found in the cell membrane?

A

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

23
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A

Simple diffusion is a passive process that moves lipid soluble and small with their own kinetic energy

24
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential across a partially permeable membrane.

25
Q

Role of ATP in active transport

A

ATP provides the energy needed for the carrier protein to change shape, allowing it to transport molecules from a region of lower to higher concentration

26
Q

What is the role of sodium ions in co-transport mechanism for glucose?

A

Sodium ions are actively pumped out of epithelial cells into capillaries lowering the concentration inside the cell. This creates a gradient that allows diffusion of sodium back in through co-transport proteins bringing amino acid/ glucose moving against its concentration gradient.

27
Q

What are lymphocytes role in the immune system?

A

Lymphocytes play crucial roll by recognizing pathogen and harmful foreign substances, allowing the body to target and eliminate by releasing hydrolytic enzyme.

28
Q

What are the role of lymphocytes in disguising between pathogens?

A

Differentiate due to antigens which are unique.

29
Q

What is phagocytosis and what is its role?

A

Detect no-self cells through chemicals released by pathogens. They attach to them using surface receptors, engulf them, break them down using lytic enzymes.

30
Q

What are the role of T-cells?

A

Recognizing antigen presenting cells (APC). Helper T-cells activate B- cells and macrophages, while cytotoxic T cells destroy infected cells by releasing perforin.

31
Q

What are the role of B- cells?

A

Undergo clonal expansion and differentiate into plasma cells, that produce antibodies. This process is crucial for the humoral immune response.

32
Q

What is the main difference between active and passive immunity?

A

Active immunity occurs when the body produces its own antibodies in response to an infection or vaccination create long term protection.
Passive immunity provides immediate but temporary protection through antibodies obtained from another individual.

33
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

Protects individuals who cannot receive the vaccines reducing the overall presence of the pathogen in communities.

34
Q

What are the main components of HIV?

A

HIV consists of RNA as its genetic material and reverse transcriptase. It is surrounded by capsid and an envelope derived of its host cell membrane, with protein attachments that help bind to its host cells.

35
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Produced from a singe clone cells, making them identical. They can be engineered to attach to specific antigens.

A Level Biology B2 (2 decks)

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