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biology > 2.2 - biological molecules * > Flashcards

2.2 - biological molecules * Flashcards

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1
Q

what do carbohydrates do?

A

store energy + provide structural support for plant cells

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2
Q

what are 3 examples of + the general formula of monosaccharides?

A
  • glucose, fructose, galactose
  • CnH2nOn
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3
Q

what are 3 examples of disaccharides?

A

maltose, sucrose, lactose

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4
Q

3 examples of polysaccharides?

A

starch, glycogen, cellulose

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5
Q

what is glucose and what does it do?

A
  • C6H12O6
  • monosaccharide
  • provides energy, can polymerise to form structural molecules (cellulose), or serve as an energy storage molecule (glycogen + starch)
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6
Q

difference between alpha and beta glucose?

A

alpha = on RHS a H on top and Oh on bottom

beta = on RHS they swap

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7
Q

what is a monomer?

A

small single unit that acts as a building block to create larger molecules

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8
Q

what is a polymer?

A

a molecule composed of many monomers chemically bonded together

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9
Q

what does a condensation reaction do?

A

bonds monomers together by removal of water, enabling a chemical bond to form between the monomers

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10
Q

what does a hydrolysis reaction do?

A

break the chemical bond between monomers by the addition of a water molecule

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11
Q

what is a disaccharide?

A

molecule formed by two monosaccharides in a condensation reaction, joined by a glycosidic bond

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12
Q

what are the three examples of the FORMATION of disaccharides?

A

glucose + glucose —> maltose
glucose + galactose —> lactose
glucose + fructose —> sucrose

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13
Q

the general formula of a disaccharide?

A

(CnH2nOn) 2 - H2O

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14
Q

what is starch made from?

A

excess glucose created during photosynthesis

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15
Q

a property of starch?

A

insoluble so can be stored within cells without dissolving so doesn’t affect water potential of cell

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16
Q

what is starch?

A

polymer of glucose monomers held together by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds

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17
Q

what is amylose?

A
  • a starch structure with only 1,4 glycosidic bonds
  • spiral shape enabling efficient compaction for storage
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18
Q

what is amylopectin?

A
  • a starch structure with both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
  • branched providing larger surface area for enzymes to attach to so can be readily hydrolysed back into glucose
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19
Q

what is glycogen + what’s it made from?

A
  • major carbohydrate storage molecule located in animal cells - mainly liver and muscle cells
  • created from excess glucose absorbed into the bloodstream
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20
Q

structure of glycogen?

A
  • polymer of alpha glucose
  • made of 1,4 and 1,6 bonds but far more 1,6 making it more branched
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21
Q

properties of glycogen?

A
  • insoluble so doesn’t affect water potential
  • highly branched = large surface area for enzymes to attach to so can be RAPIDLY hydrolysed back into glucose
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22
Q

what is a water molecule?

A
  • dipolar molecule with oxygen being slightly negative and hydrogen slightly positive
  • covalent bonds between oxygen and hydrogens but hydrogen bond between water molecules
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23
Q

water as a metabolite?

A
  • involved in many reactions such as hydrolysis, photosynthesis and condensation
  • approx 90% of plasma in blood is water
  • cytoplasm in cells is mainly water
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24
Q

the five properties of water?

A

metabolite, solvent, high specific heat capacity, large latent heat of vaporisation, strong cohesion

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25
Q

water as a solvent?

A
  • polar/charged molecules dissolve in water due to its dipolar nature
  • non polar (hydrophobic) molecules don’t dissolve in water
26
Q

water’s high specific heat capacity?

A
  • a lot of energy required to raise temp of water
  • useful so internal water temp is stable so enzymes don’t denature
27
Q

waters strong cohesion?

A
  • due to hydrogen bonds
  • advantage as when water moves up xylem in transpiration it forms a continuous column of water
  • provides surface tension which enables small intervertabrates to move and live on the surface
28
Q

hydrogen and hydroxide ions?

A
  • has an impact on pH
    – relevant when considering enzymes and proteins denaturing, increasing heart rate, and the Bohr effect on haemoglobin
  • hydrogen carbonate provides source of carbon dioxide to plants when dissolved in solution but in human blood it lowers the pH
29
Q

chloride ions?

A

inhibitory effect at a synapse

30
Q

sodium and potassium ions?

A
  • co-transport of glucose and amino acids
    – relevant in absorption of glucose and resting/action potential in the nervous system
31
Q

inorganic ions?

A
  • occur in cytoplasm of organisms
  • varying concentrations
  • different roles depending on properties
32
Q

phosphate ions?

A
  • components of DNA and of ATP
    – relevant to DNA, RNA, and ATP structure
33
Q

ammonium ions?

A

result of the decay of amino acids in decomposition and deamination

34
Q

nitrate ions?

A

absorbed through plant root hair cells and are essential for the creation of proteins and nucleic acids

35
Q

reducing sugars test?

A
  • add Benedict’s reagent to the sample you are testing
  • heat
  • if colour change from blue to yellow/green/red is observed then there is presence of a reducing sugar
  • the more brick red the precipitate, the more sugar it contains
36
Q

test for non reducing sugars?

A
  • repeat reducing sugars test and if solution stays blue then:
  • add dilute hydrochloric acid
  • observe colour change of same scale as reducing sugars test
37
Q

what are lipids + properties?

A
  • biological molecules that contain C, H and O
  • non polar so insoluble in water
  • hydrophobic
  • do not form polymers
38
Q

what are lipids made of?

A

one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids

39
Q

what are fatty acids?

A
  • long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with carboxyl group at one end (COOH)
  • hydrocarbon tail varies in length
40
Q

difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

A
  • saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the carbon atoms
  • unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon atoms
  • if they have one double bond they are monounsaturated
  • if there are many double bonds it is polyunsaturated
  • saturated = straight chain (usually solids like fats)
  • unsaturated = kinked (usually liquids like oils)
41
Q

structure and bonding of a triglyceride?

A
  • one glycerol and three fatty acids
  • fatty acids are each bonded onto the glycerol by condensation reaction
  • the condensation reaction occurs between carboxyl group (COOH) of the fatty acid and the hydroxyl group (OH) of the glycerol
  • bond that forms between the glycerol and carboxyl group of the fatty acids is an ester bond
42
Q

four properties of triglycerides?

A
  • an energy storage
  • metabolic water source
  • insoluble in water
  • low in mass
43
Q

triglycerides as an energy storage?

A

due to large ratio of energy-storing carbon-hydrogen bonds compared to number of carbon atoms, lots of energy is stored in the molecule

44
Q

triglycerides as metabolic water source?

A
  • high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms
  • because triglycerides can release water if they are oxidized
  • essential for animals in the desert, such as camels
45
Q

lipids as insoluble in water?

A
  • large hydrophobic molecules
  • will not affect water potentials and osmosis
46
Q

advantage of lipids being low in mass?

A

a lot can be stored in an animal without increasing its mass and preventing movement

47
Q

structure and bonding of phospholipids?

A
  • made up of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group (attached to the glycerol)
  • the two fatty acids also bond to the glycerol via two condensation reactions, resulting in two ester bonds
  • hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
48
Q

describe properties of phospholipids?

A
  • polar molecule
  • behaviour of the tails moving away from water results in formation of phospholipid bilayer membrane structure which forms plasma membrane around cells
  • hydrophilic nature of phosphate head enables surface of plasma membrane to stay in place
  • phospholipid bilayer arrangement enables carbohydrates to attach and form important receptors on the membrane (glycolipids)
49
Q
A
50
Q

ethanol emulsion test?

A
  • tests for lipids
  • add ethanol to sample
  • shake
  • add distilled water
  • if cloudy precipitate forms, lipids are present
50
Q

what are proteins?

A

large polymers made up of the monomer amino acids

51
Q

structure of a protein?

A
  • central carbon
  • hydrogen above
  • amino group to left
  • carboxyl group to right
  • changeable R group below
52
Q

primary protein structure?

A
  • the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
  • 20 different amino acids that can form the primary structure
  • polypeptide chain is created by a series of condensation reactions occurring between amino acids
53
Q

secondary protein structure?

A
  • folding the primary structure into α helix shapes or fold into β pleated sheets
  • held in place by hydrogen bonds
54
Q

tertiary protein structure?

A
  • the further folding of the secondary structure
  • to create a unique 3D structure
  • held in place by hydrogen, ionic, and disulfide bonds.
55
Q

quaternary protein structure?

A
  • protein that is made up of more than one polypeptide chain
  • still folded into a 3D shape and held by hydrogen, ionic, and disulfide bonds
  • example is haemoglobin
56
Q

fibrous proteins?

A
  • polypeptide chains form long twisted strands linked together
  • stable structure
  • insoluble in water
  • strength gives structural function
  • e.g., collagen in bone and keratin in hair
57
Q

globular proteins?

A
  • polypeptide chains ‘roll up’ into a spherical shape
  • relatively unstable structure
  • soluble
  • metabolic functions
  • e.g., all enzymes, antibodies, some hormones (e.g., insulin), haemoglobin
58
Q

what is a prosthetic group?

A
  • group that is attached to a protein but is not made up of amino acids
  • protein that has a prosthetic group can be described as a conjugated protein
59
Q

function of cellulose?

A
  • to provide structural strength in plants
  • located in the cell wall of plants therefore prevents cells from bursting if they take in excess water
60
Q

structure of cellulose?

A
  • only polysaccharide that is made up of β-glucose monomers
  • monomers are joined by 1,4-glycosidic bonds only
  • unbranched, long, straight chains of β-glucose accumulate and lie parallel to each other
  • parallel chains are then held together by many hydrogen bonds
  • makes a microfibril

biology (6 decks)

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