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Research Methods > Week 5 > Flashcards

Week 5 Flashcards

Research Designs Part 1 (Observational Studies)

1
Q

What type of studies are used to study a wider range of health issues than experimental studies?

A

Observational studies.

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2
Q

What term describes observational studies that explore naturally occurring situations without intervention?

A

“Natural” experiments.

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3
Q

Why are observational studies important for certain research questions?

A

They can investigate research questions that cannot be feasibly addressed by experimental studies.

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4
Q

What is one key difference between observational and experimental studies in health research?

A

Observational studies do not involve intervention by the researchers, whereas experimental studies do.

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5
Q

What is the focus of etiology in observational studies?

A

Etiology focuses on identifying the risk factors for developing an outcome.

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6
Q

What factors are studied under etiology in observational studies?

A

Behavioral, social, economic, and environmental factors.

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7
Q

What is the key question in prognosis for observational studies?

A

What factors predict morbidity and mortality?

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8
Q

In the context of prognosis, what other outcomes may be predicted besides morbidity and mortality?

A

Other outcomes like quality of life, which can be influenced by both care-related and non-care-related factors.

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9
Q

What is the main goal of observational research in epidemiology?

A

To examine incidence and prevalence of diseases or conditions.

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10
Q

What is incidence in epidemiology?

A

Incidence is the proportion of study subjects who develop a disease or condition over time, also known as the rate at which a disease develops.

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11
Q

Which type of study is used to measure incidence?

A

Cohort studies.

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12
Q

What is prevalence in epidemiology?

A

Prevalence is the proportion of study subjects who have a disease or condition at a given point in time, also known as the rate of the disease or condition.

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13
Q

Which type of study is used to measure prevalence?

A

Cross-sectional studies.

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14
Q

What is measured in cross-sectional studies?

A

Exposure or outcome status of individuals at one point in time (a snapshot) or over a very short period of time.

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15
Q

How are outcomes analyzed in cross-sectional studies?

A

Outcome prevalence in those with and without exposures at different exposure levels are compared.

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16
Q

What is a key application of cross-sectional studies?

A

They are useful for intervention (program) planning.

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17
Q

What is the initial step in a cross-sectional study design?

A

Identifying the study population.

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18
Q

What type of data is gathered in a cross-sectional study?

A

Data on both exposure and outcome.

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19
Q

In a cross-sectional study, what are the possible classifications for study subjects based on exposure and outcome?

A

Exposed, Outcomed
Exposed, No Outcome
Unexposed, Outcomed
Unexposed, No Outcome

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20
Q

What does “Exposed, Outcomed” mean in a cross-sectional study?

A

The individual has been exposed to a factor and has developed the outcome.

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21
Q

What does “Unexposed, No Outcome” mean in a cross-sectional study?

A

The individual has not been exposed to a factor and has not developed the outcome.

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22
Q

How is the study population sometimes selected in cross-sectional studies?

A

Based on exposure of interest, if it is readily identifiable, such as the prevalence of an outcome in a particular geographic area or occupational group.

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23
Q

What is one method for obtaining a study population in cross-sectional studies?

A

Through a representative sample, such as a random sample of households in a community.

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24
Q

When might an entire population be included in a cross-sectional study?

A

When the population is relatively small, such as a class or residents on a small street.

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25
Q

What is a descriptive cross-sectional study?

A

A study that describes the prevalence of a condition or outcome in a population, such as the prevalence of cervical cancer in Canadian women.

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26
Q

What is the focus of an analytical cross-sectional study?

A

It investigates the association between a possible risk factor (variable) for the outcome (specific disease) and the outcome itself.

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27
Q

What is one advantage of cross-sectional studies in terms of generalizability?

A

They usually have reasonably good generalizability if the sample has been selected carefully.

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28
Q

Why are cross-sectional studies time-efficient?

A

They can be conducted in a relatively short period of time since you don’t have to wait for an outcome to occur.

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29
Q

How do cross-sectional studies compare in cost to other research designs?

A

They are relatively inexpensive compared to other research designs.

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30
Q

How are cross-sectional studies useful in relation to cohort studies or intervention trials?

A

They serve as a good first step towards conducting a cohort study or intervention trial.

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31
Q

What can cross-sectional studies assess in relation to public health or societal issues?

A

They can assess trends or changes in a problem or issue.

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32
Q

What is a key disadvantage of cross-sectional studies in terms of time sequence?

A

They lack a temporal (time) sequence of exposure preceding the outcome, making it unclear what happened when.

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33
Q

Why can’t cross-sectional studies determine cause and effect?

A

Because they do not provide information about the temporal relationship between exposure and outcome.

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34
Q

What challenge might cross-sectional studies face in relation to sample selection?

A

There may be challenges in pulling together a representative sample, depending on the health issues under study.

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35
Q

How are individuals selected in a cohort study?

A

“Exposed” and “unexposed” individuals are selected to be followed over time.

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36
Q

What is the primary goal of cohort studies?

A

To observe the difference in the incidence of an outcome between exposed and unexposed individuals.

37
Q

What type of study design is a cohort study?

A

It is a longitudinal study, where individuals are followed over a period of time.

38
Q

How are individuals assigned in a cohort study?

A

Individuals are non-randomly assigned to “exposed” or “unexposed” groups.

39
Q

What are the two possible outcomes for individuals in the “exposed” group of a cohort study?

A

Develop the outcome
Do not develop the outcome

40
Q

What are the two possible outcomes for individuals in the “unexposed” group of a cohort study?

A

Develop the outcome
Do not develop the outcome

41
Q

What is the primary goal of cohort studies when following both exposed and unexposed groups?

A

To observe and compare the incidence of the outcome between the exposed and unexposed groups.

42
Q

In a prospective cohort study, when is the exposure status determined?

A

The exposure status is determined in the present, before the outcome occurs.

43
Q

How are individuals assigned to groups in a prospective cohort study?

A

Individuals are non-randomly assigned to either the “exposed” or “unexposed” group.

44
Q

What is the goal of a prospective cohort study?

A

To observe the future development of outcomes in both exposed and unexposed groups over time.

45
Q

What are the two possible outcomes for both exposed and unexposed individuals in a prospective cohort study?

A

Develop the outcome
Do not develop the outcome

46
Q

What distinguishes a prospective cohort study from other study designs?

A

The study follows individuals over time into the future to assess the development of the outcome based on exposure status.

47
Q

In a retrospective cohort study, when are the exposure and outcome data collected?

A

Both exposure and outcome data are collected from the past.

48
Q

How are individuals assigned in a retrospective cohort study?

A

Individuals are non-randomly assigned to “exposed” and “unexposed” groups based on past data.

49
Q

What is the goal of a retrospective cohort study?

A

To examine the outcomes that have already occurred in the past based on exposure status.

50
Q

What are the two possible outcomes for both exposed and unexposed groups in a retrospective cohort study?

A

Develop the outcome
Do not develop the outcome

51
Q

What distinguishes a retrospective cohort study from a prospective cohort study?

A

Retrospective cohort studies examine past data, whereas prospective cohort studies follow participants into the future to observe outcomes.

52
Q

What is the first step in assembling a cohort for a study?

A

Select groups based on exposure status (exposed vs. unexposed) and follow them over time or back in time to assess the outcome.

53
Q

How can a cohort be assembled from a defined population?

A

Select a defined population (e.g., an occupational group or geographic area) before exposure occurs and follow them over time to separate by exposure status and assess outcomes.

54
Q

What is the purpose of following groups over time or back in time in cohort studies?

A

To observe the development of the outcome based on their exposure status.

55
Q

What is the main comparison in double or multiple cohort studies?

A

The outcome in the “exposed group” is compared with the outcome in a “substitute” population.

56
Q

What is another name for double or multiple cohort studies?

A

The “poor person’s Randomized Control Trial.”

57
Q

What does the substitute population represent in double or multiple cohort studies?

A

The substitute population represents the exposed group without the exposure or different levels of exposure.

58
Q

What does the validity of inference in double or multiple cohort studies depend on?

A

It depends on finding a valid substitute population.

59
Q

What is relative risk?

A

Relative risk is a measure of association used for deriving a causal inference.

60
Q

How is relative risk calculated?

A

Relative Risk = Incidence in Exposed / Incidence in Unexposed

61
Q

What is one advantage of cohort studies in terms of exposure and outcomes?

A

Cohort studies can examine multiple effects of a single exposure (i.e., multiple outcomes).

62
Q

How do cohort studies handle the temporal relationship between exposure and outcome?

A

They can examine the temporal (time) relationship between exposures and outcomes.

63
Q

What direct measurement can cohort studies provide?

A

They allow direct measurement of the incidence of outcomes in both exposed and unexposed groups, enabling the calculation of relative risk.

64
Q

How are cohort studies useful for identifying rare exposures?

A

They are useful for identifying rare exposures (e.g., asbestos in occupational settings) if the sample size is large enough.

65
Q

Why are cohort studies not ideal for rare diseases or outcomes?

A

They are not good for rare diseases or outcomes because these conditions may not occur frequently enough within the study population.

66
Q

What is a disadvantage of cohort studies if the outcome of interest has a long latency period?

A

The study can take a long time to complete.

67
Q

How does the cost of cohort studies compare to other study designs?

A

Cohort studies are generally more expensive, though retrospective cohort studies tend to be less costly.

68
Q

What is a key requirement for retrospective cohort studies to be valid?

A

The availability of accurate records.

69
Q

How can losses to follow-up affect the validity of cohort studies?

A

The validity of results can be seriously affected if there are significant losses to follow-up.

70
Q

What is a potential problem with confounding in multiple cohort studies?

A

There can be serious problems with confounding, which can affect the validity of the results.

71
Q

In a cohort study, when does the investigator begin the study in relation to the exposure?

A

The investigator begins the study after the exposure has occurred.

72
Q

In a case-control study, when does the investigator begin the study in relation to the disease outcome?

A

The investigator begins the study after the disease outcome has occurred.

73
Q

What are case-control studies considered to be in relation to cohort studies?

A

They are logical extensions of cohort studies and an efficient way to explore associations.

74
Q

Can case-control studies estimate the incidence and prevalence of an outcome?

A

No, they cannot estimate incidence or prevalence because the proportion of people with the disease or condition is determined by the investigator.

75
Q

In a case-control study, how are cases defined?

A

Cases are individuals with the outcome, and they are categorized as either exposed or not exposed to the factor of interest.

76
Q

In a case-control study, how are controls defined?

A

Controls are individuals without the outcome, and they are also categorized as either exposed or not exposed to the factor of interest.

77
Q

What is the main purpose of comparing cases and controls in a case-control study?

A

To determine if exposure to a factor is associated with the outcome by comparing the exposure status between cases (with the outcome) and controls (without the outcome).

78
Q

When is a case-control study useful in terms of outcome knowledge?

A

When little is known about the outcome or when exploring a new area of inquiry.

79
Q

Why might a case-control study be used when exposure data is difficult to obtain?

A

Because exposure data might be difficult or expensive to obtain, making case-control studies a more efficient option.

80
Q

Why are case-control studies used when the outcome is rare?

A

Case-control studies are efficient for studying rare outcomes because they focus on individuals who already have the outcome.

81
Q

When is a case-control study appropriate for outcomes with long induction or latency periods?

A

When the outcome has a long induction or latency period, case-control studies can help avoid the long waiting periods associated with cohort studies.

82
Q

How does a special dynamic underlying population influence the use of case-control studies?

A

Case-control studies are useful when there is a special dynamic in the underlying population that affects the exposure and outcome.

83
Q

How do case-control studies compare to cohort studies in terms of time and cost?

A

Case-control studies are relatively quick and inexpensive, especially compared to cohort studies.

84
Q

Why are case-control studies useful for studying rare diseases or outcomes?

A

They are efficient because they focus on individuals who already have the rare disease or outcome.

85
Q

What makes case-control studies effective in the context of communicable disease outbreaks?

A

They are an effective research design for investigating the causes and spread of communicable disease outbreaks.

86
Q

What is a limitation of case-control studies in terms of the number of outcomes studied?

A

Case-control studies can only focus on one disease or outcome at a time.

87
Q

Why are case-control studies inefficient for rare exposures?

A

They may be inefficient for studying rare exposures because such exposures are less common in the population being studied.

88
Q

Can case-control studies directly compute incidence or prevalence?

A

No, case-control studies cannot usually directly compute incidence rates or the prevalence of an outcome in exposed versus unexposed groups.

89
Q

What challenge do case-control studies face regarding the temporal relationship between exposure and outcome?

A

The temporal relationship between exposure and outcome may be difficult to establish.

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