UNIT Contract 9 HOBBES: SOCIAL CONTRACT⁎

Question 1

Know Hobbes’ ideas on state of nature
9.2 State of Nature
9.2.1 Matter and Motion
9.2.2 State of War and Natural Right
1. According to Hobbes, what are the three main reasons for the ceaseless
quest for power in the state of nature?

2. What natural right do all individuals have in the state of nature and what
   does such a right entail in the view of Hobbes?

Answer 1

Efficient Pointer Summary with Keywords

1. State of Nature:

Hypothetical pre-political condition marked by constant conflict and insecurity.

Built on Hobbes’ mechanistic materialism and psychoanalysis of human nature.

2. Matter and Motion:

Human thoughts and actions arise from material interactions.

Appetites (desires) and aversions (dislikes) drive voluntary actions.

3. State of War:

Driven by competition, insecurity, and glory-seeking.

Characterized by violence, power struggles, and “natural equality.”

4. Natural Right:

Right to self-preservation is inherent but unprotected in the state of nature.

5. Escape through Social Contract:

Fear of violent death and rationality lead individuals to seek a sovereign authority for stability.

Mnemonic for Keywords

“Nature Makes War Necessary to Escape.”

N: State of Nature

M: Matter and Motion

W: State of War

N: Natural Right

E: Escape through Social Contract

Elaboration on Hobbes’ Materialism and Its Implications

Introduction

Hobbes’ mechanistic materialism extends beyond explaining human perception and thought. It sets the foundation for his views on governance, morality, and societal organization. This perspective aligns human behavior with natural laws, influencing modern philosophy and political theory. Below is a deeper exploration of the themes introduced.

Elaboration on Themes

1. Materialism as a Philosophical Foundation

Hobbes’ view is influenced by mechanistic physics: all phenomena, including thoughts, are reducible to material causes.

Significance: By rooting cognition in motion, Hobbes eliminates spiritual or metaphysical explanations of thought, grounding his philosophy in empirical principles.

2. Perception and Thought: The Basis of Human Knowledge

Perception: Interaction between external matter and sensory organs forms the basis of reality.

Imagination and Memory: The continuation of sensory impressions allows for reasoning and planning.

Implication: Human cognition is inherently limited by sensory inputs, emphasizing the need for structure (e.g., laws) to manage subjective interpretations.

3. Language and Authority: Bridging Subjectivity

Language allows humans to share ideas, yet subjective experiences make it prone to misinterpretation.

Need for Authority: A central arbiter standardizes language and resolves disputes about meaning.

Philosophical Importance: This prefigures Hobbes’ argument for a sovereign in political life—just as language needs rules, society needs governance.

4. Motions: Vital and Voluntary Distinction

Vital Motions: Represent unconscious life processes, showcasing the biological foundation of existence.

Voluntary Motions: Highlight human agency, reflecting how thoughts influence actions.

Key Insight: Human behavior is mechanistically predictable but shaped by individual goals and emotions.

5. Endeavours, Appetites, and Aversions

Endeavours: Core drivers of human actions, illustrating the simplicity of Hobbes’ model of decision-making.

Appetites: Positive pursuits (pleasure, fulfillment).

Aversions: Negative pursuits (avoidance of harm, fear).

Moral Implication: Good and evil are subjective, driven by personal desires and dislikes, not universal morality.

6. Deliberation and the Will: The Decision-Making Process

Deliberation: Reflects rationality in determining which actions maximize pleasure or minimize pain.

Will: The culmination of deliberation, marking the transition from thought to action.

Philosophical Insight: This connects Hobbes’ materialism to his political theory—individual rationality must be tempered by collective rules.

Implications for Society and Governance

1. Necessity of a Central Authority

Subjective experiences and competing appetites/aversions make conflict inevitable in a decentralized state.

Solution: A sovereign authority imposes order, adjudicates disputes, and ensures social cohesion.

2. Transition from Nature to Society

In the state of nature, individual liberty is unregulated, leading to chaos (“war of all against all”).

Role of Reason: Fear of death and the rational desire for security motivate individuals to accept a social contract.

3. Foundations of Liberalism

Hobbes’ focus on individual appetites and rights influences later liberal thinkers.

Key Contribution: The idea that governance emerges from individuals’ rational self-interest is central to liberalism.

Conclusion

Hobbes’ materialism, rooted in the principles of matter and motion, offers a profound understanding of human thought, behavior, and society. It ties subjective experiences to the necessity of language, authority, and governance. By emphasizing rationality and the centrality of authority, Hobbes bridges individual desires with collective stability, laying the groundwork for modern political philosophy.

Would you like specific examples from Leviathan to reinforce these points or connections to other political theorists like Locke or Rousseau?

Question 2

9.2.1 matter and motion

Answer 2

Efficient Pointer Summary with Keywords

1. Materialism: Human thoughts stem from matter in motion.
2. Perception: Sensory interactions generate imagination and understanding.
3. Imagination: Forms trains of thought, either regulated (reason) or unregulated (dreams).
4. Language: Requires common authority for meaning and communication.
5. Vital Motions: Involuntary processes like digestion.
6. Voluntary Motions: Directed actions like walking, guided by thought.
7. Endeavours: Thoughts driving voluntary actions, split into appetites (desires) and aversions (dislikes).
8. Pleasure and Pain: Outcomes tied to appetites (good) or aversions (evil).
9. Will: Decision formed after deliberation on what increases pleasure or avoids pain.

Mnemonic for Keywords

“My Persistent Imagination Lets Vital Voluntary Endeavours Please Willingly.”

M: Materialism

P: Perception

I: Imagination

L: Language

V: Vital Motions

V: Voluntary Motions

E: Endeavours

P: Pleasure and Pain

W: Will

Detailed 500+ Word Answer with Pointers

Introduction

1. Hobbes’ Goal: To explain human thoughts and behavior mechanistically, rooted in materialism.
2. Central Argument: All actions and perceptions arise from matter in motion, forming the foundation for imagination, decision-making, and society.

Body

1. Materialism

Hobbes argues all human actions originate from material bodies in motion.

Interactions (collisions) of matter cause sensory experiences and thought processes.

2. Perception and Imagination

Perception: Occurs when external material interacts with sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears).

Imagination: The internal continuation of sensory motion, forming thoughts and memory.

Memory: A type of imagination recounting past interactions.

Trains of Thought:

Regulated: Guided by reason, producing logic, science, and speech.

Unregulated: Unguided processes like dreams and hallucinations.

3. Language and Authority

Speech enables communication of desires and knowledge but requires a common standard for clarity.

Subjective sensory experiences necessitate a central authority to adjudicate meanings, enabling intelligible language and knowledge.

4. Vital and Voluntary Motions

Vital Motions: Involuntary, biological functions (e.g., circulation, digestion).

Voluntary Motions: Intentional actions (e.g., speaking, walking) driven by thoughts.

5. Endeavours

Thoughts that drive voluntary actions are termed endeavours, categorized as:

Appetites: Desires for pleasure or “Good.”

Aversions: Dislikes or fears, considered “Evil.”

6. Pleasure and Pain

Pleasure: Aligns with appetites, promoting vital motions and well-being.

Pain: Associated with aversions, hindering vital motions.

7. Deliberation and Will

Deliberation: Process of assessing if an action increases pleasure or avoids pain.

Will: The final decision that directs actions based on deliberation.

Conclusion

1. Mechanistic Insight: Hobbes’ explanation of thought as matter in motion links human behavior to natural laws.
2. Sovereign Necessity: His materialist framework underscores the need for a central authority to maintain order, language, and societal progress.
3. Relevance: Hobbes’ ideas laid the foundation for modern epistemology and political theory by tying human nature to governance.

Would you like further elaboration or connections to other philosophers?

Question 3

9.2.1 matter and motion

Answer 3

Efficient Pointer Summary with Keywords

1. Materialism: Human thoughts stem from matter in motion.
2. Perception: Sensory interactions generate imagination and understanding.
3. Imagination: Forms trains of thought, either regulated (reason) or unregulated (dreams).
4. Language: Requires common authority for meaning and communication.
5. Vital Motions: Involuntary processes like digestion.
6. Voluntary Motions: Directed actions like walking, guided by thought.
7. Endeavours: Thoughts driving voluntary actions, split into appetites (desires) and aversions (dislikes).
8. Pleasure and Pain: Outcomes tied to appetites (good) or aversions (evil).
9. Will: Decision formed after deliberation on what increases pleasure or avoids pain.

Mnemonic for Keywords

“My Persistent Imagination Lets Vital Voluntary Endeavours Please Willingly.”

M: Materialism

P: Perception

I: Imagination

L: Language

V: Vital Motions

V: Voluntary Motions

E: Endeavours

P: Pleasure and Pain

W: Will

Detailed 500+ Word Answer with Pointers

Introduction

1. Hobbes’ Goal: To explain human thoughts and behavior mechanistically, rooted in materialism.
2. Central Argument: All actions and perceptions arise from matter in motion, forming the foundation for imagination, decision-making, and society.

Body

1. Materialism

Hobbes argues all human actions originate from material bodies in motion.

Interactions (collisions) of matter cause sensory experiences and thought processes.

2. Perception and Imagination

Perception: Occurs when external material interacts with sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears).

Imagination: The internal continuation of sensory motion, forming thoughts and memory.

Memory: A type of imagination recounting past interactions.

Trains of Thought:

Regulated: Guided by reason, producing logic, science, and speech.

Unregulated: Unguided processes like dreams and hallucinations.

3. Language and Authority

Speech enables communication of desires and knowledge but requires a common standard for clarity.

Subjective sensory experiences necessitate a central authority to adjudicate meanings, enabling intelligible language and knowledge.

4. Vital and Voluntary Motions

Vital Motions: Involuntary, biological functions (e.g., circulation, digestion).

Voluntary Motions: Intentional actions (e.g., speaking, walking) driven by thoughts.

5. Endeavours

Thoughts that drive voluntary actions are termed endeavours, categorized as:

Appetites: Desires for pleasure or “Good.”

Aversions: Dislikes or fears, considered “Evil.”

6. Pleasure and Pain

Pleasure: Aligns with appetites, promoting vital motions and well-being.

Pain: Associated with aversions, hindering vital motions.

7. Deliberation and Will

Deliberation: Process of assessing if an action increases pleasure or avoids pain.

Will: The final decision that directs actions based on deliberation.

Conclusion

1. Mechanistic Insight: Hobbes’ explanation of thought as matter in motion links human behavior to natural laws.
2. Sovereign Necessity: His materialist framework underscores the need for a central authority to maintain order, language, and societal progress.
3. Relevance: Hobbes’ ideas laid the foundation for modern epistemology and political theory by tying human nature to governance.

Would you like further elaboration or connections to other philosophers?

Question 4

9.2.2 State of War and Natural Right

Answer 4

Efficient Pointer Summary Using Keywords

1. State of Nature: Hypothetical condition without government or laws.
2. Conflict Drivers: Competition, insecurity, and pursuit of glory.
3. Endless Quest for Power: Power is essential for desires, protection, and status.
4. Natural Equality: All humans are equal in their vulnerability to death.
5. State of War: Life in the state of nature is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
6. Natural Right: Self-preservation is the inherent right of every individual.
7. Absence of Morality: Good and evil are subjective; no universal justice exists.
8. Reason and Fear: Fear of death and reason lead to the social contract.

Mnemonic

S.C.E.N.S.A.R.

State of Nature

Conflict Drivers

Endless Quest for Power

Natural Equality

State of War

Absence of Morality

Reason and Fear

Detailed Answer

Introduction

Hobbes’ concept of the state of nature offers a grim portrayal of human life without government or laws, characterized by perpetual conflict and a lack of morality. This thought experiment forms the foundation for his argument in favor of an absolutist sovereign to ensure peace and order.

Body

1. The State of Nature as a Hypothetical Tool

Not a historical reality but a philosophical construct.

Explores human behavior in a society devoid of governance.

2. Sources of Conflict

Competition: Conflict over scarce resources to satisfy desires.

Insecurity: Fear of losing possessions creates perpetual anxiety.

Pursuit of Glory: Desire for recognition and status provokes rivalry.

3. Endless Quest for Power

Power is the ultimate goal to achieve desires, ensure security, and attain glory.

Leads to ceaseless instability as everyone vies for dominance.

4. Natural Equality and Vulnerability

All humans are roughly equal in their ability to harm or kill, creating universal insecurity.

Even the weakest can overcome the strongest through trickery or alliances.

5. The State of War

Continuous conflict renders life chaotic and devoid of progress.

Famous description in Leviathan:

No industry or arts due to uncertainty.

Life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

6. Absence of Morality and Justice

Morality is subjective, driven by individual appetites and aversions.

Without a sovereign, there are no laws or universal notions of justice.

7. Natural Right to Self-Preservation

Individuals have the liberty to do whatever is necessary for survival.

Rights are unrestricted but lack enforceability in the absence of authority.

8. Reason and Fear Propel the Social Contract

Fear of violent death and rationality motivate individuals to seek order.

Leads to the establishment of a sovereign authority through a social contract.

9. Influence on Liberal Philosophy

Hobbes positions the individual as the primary rights-holder.

Foundations for liberal ideas of individualism and state authority.

Conclusion

Hobbes’ depiction of the state of nature is a bleak yet compelling argument for the necessity of governance. His theory highlights human tendencies towards conflict in the absence of authority and the role of reason and fear in transcending this state. By advocating for a social contract, Hobbes lays the groundwork for modern political philosophy, influencing liberal and absolutist traditions alike.

Would you like further expansion on the transition from state of nature to the social contract or a comparison with other theorists like Locke and Rousseau?

Question 5

9.3 Social Contract
9.3.1 Laws of Nature

1. According to Hobbes, what are the Laws of Nature?
2. According to Hobbes, which right alone is not surrendered in any social
   contract and why?

Answer 5

Efficient Pointer Summary Using Keywords

1. Fear and Reason: Fear of death and reason motivate escape from the state of nature.
2. Laws of Nature: Reason-derived principles for peace and self-preservation.
3. Three Fundamental Laws: Seek peace, mutual surrender of rights, adherence to contracts.
4. Social Contract: Agreement to establish order and avoid chaos.
5. Commonwealth: Unified representation of individual wills, an artificial person.
6. Leviathan: Powerful state as an artificial person, invoking fear for order.

Mnemonic

F.L.T.S.C.L.

Fear and Reason

Laws of Nature

Three Fundamental Laws

Social Contract

Commonwealth

Leviathan

Detailed Answer

Introduction

Hobbes’ theory of the social contract emerges as a solution to the chaotic state of nature. By leveraging human fear of death and rationality, Hobbes outlines a framework where individuals collectively establish a sovereign authority for peace and stability.

Body

1. Fear and Reason as Motivators

Fear of violent death (ultimate aversion) drives humans to seek peace.

Reason, termed as philosophy, identifies laws of nature as theorems of peace.

Together, they enable the transition from the state of nature to civil society.

2. Laws of Nature

Reason-derived principles for self-preservation and cooperation.

While Hobbes identifies 19 laws, they are essentially guidelines, not enforceable laws in the absence of a sovereign.

Debate exists about their status as moral absolutes or pragmatic precepts.

Hobbes aligns them with divine will, arguing they reflect God’s commands.

3. Three Fundamental Laws

First Law: Seek peace if others cooperate; otherwise, preserve life through any means.

Second Law: Form a contract by mutually surrendering rights, except self-preservation.

Third Law: Uphold the contract to ensure justice and prevent chaos.

4. Remaining 16 Laws

Support the primary laws by fostering gratitude, impartiality, and fairness.

Examples include avoiding pride, ensuring just arbitration, and pursuing equality.

These create the moral foundation necessary for a functional society.

5. Social Contract

Agreement where individuals surrender certain liberties for collective security.

The contract establishes moral obligations and sets the groundwork for justice.

Sovereign authority is necessary to enforce the contract and ensure compliance.

6. Creation of the Commonwealth

The commonwealth, or state, represents the unified will of all contract participants.

Hobbes differentiates between:

Natural Person: Speaks their own words (e.g., individuals).

Artificial Person: Speaks on behalf of others (e.g., the state).

The state is thus an artificial person created to represent collective will.

7. The Leviathan as the Sovereign State

Hobbes names the commonwealth Leviathan, evoking fear to ensure obedience.

Fear plays a dual role:

Motivator: Drives individuals from the state of nature to the contract.

Enforcer: Ensures adherence to the contract.

The Leviathan’s power ensures peace and prevents regression into chaos.

Conclusion

Hobbes’ social contract theory transforms a violent and unstable state of nature into an organized commonwealth through the laws of nature and rational agreement. The Leviathan represents this sovereign authority, which is feared and respected for its ability to maintain order. Hobbes’ framework, rooted in fear and reason, serves as a foundation for modern political philosophy and the justification of state power.

Would you like a deeper analysis of the role of fear in the Leviathan or its implications for contemporary political thought?

Question 6

9.4 LEGACY OF HOBBESIAN SOCIAL CONTRACT

Answer 6

Efficient Pointer Summary Using Keywords

1. Critique of Human Nature: Hobbes’ portrayal seen as a reflection of market society rather than pre-political human behavior (Macpherson, 1962).
2. Ahistorical Assumption: State of nature criticized as hypothetical rather than historical.
3. Moral Relativism: Criticized by Adam Smith and Leo Strauss for equating morality with personal desires.
4. Deontological Defense: Warrender (1957) argues Hobbes’ natural laws have eternal divine origins.
5. Feasibility Doubts: Concerns about whether power-hungry individuals can form a contract.
6. Absolutist Sovereignty: Criticized for promoting near-totalitarian authority.
7. Influence on Liberalism: Hobbes’ ideas shaped liberal thought and influenced utilitarianism.
8. Game Theory & IR: Inspired game theory (Prisoner’s Dilemma) and Realist International Relations.

Mnemonic

C.A.M.D.F.A.I.G.

Critique of Human Nature

Ahistorical Assumption

Moral Relativism

Deontological Defense

Feasibility Doubts

Absolutist Sovereignty

Influence on Liberalism

Game Theory & IR

Detailed Answer

Introduction

The legacy of Hobbes’ social contract theory is vast, marked by intense debate and enduring influence on political philosophy, moral theory, and international relations. While some hail Hobbes as a foundational thinker of modern liberalism, others criticize his pessimistic view of human nature and the authoritarian implications of his sovereign state.

Body

1. Critique of Hobbes’ View of Human Nature

Macpherson (1962): Argues Hobbes described market society, not a pre-political state of nature.

Competitive, power-driven individuals align with early capitalism rather than human nature.

2. Ahistorical Nature of the State of Nature

Hobbes admits the state of nature is hypothetical, not historical.

Critics view this as a weak foundation for a universal theory of political organization.

3. Moral Relativism

Adam Smith (1759): Criticizes the reduction of morality to subjective appetites and aversions.

Morality, in Hobbes’ framework, depends on state invention, lacking higher principles.

Leo Strauss (1936): Highlights the relativistic undertones in Hobbes’ moral philosophy.

4. Deontological Defense

Warrender (1957): Suggests Hobbes’ natural laws have divine origins, making them immutable and eternal.

This view aligns Hobbes with a more structured moral philosophy.

5. Feasibility of the Social Contract

Skepticism arises whether the aggressive individuals of the state of nature can rationally agree on a social contract.

Critics question the leap from chaos to cooperation without an initial authority.

6. Absolutist Sovereignty

Hobbes’ Leviathan, which demands near-total surrender of rights, faces criticism for its authoritarian tendencies.

Modern critiques explore the ethical and practical dangers of such concentrated power.

7. Influence on Liberal Political Theory

Hobbes’ focus on individual rights and self-preservation contributed to the foundation of liberalism.

His framework of appetites and aversions influenced utilitarianism.

8. Contribution to Game Theory and IR

Hobbes’ view of self-interested individuals influenced the Prisoner’s Dilemma in game theory.

Realist International Relations (IR) theorists drew from Hobbes’ state of nature to conceptualize global anarchy.

Conclusion

Hobbes’ social contract theory continues to resonate in political and philosophical discourse. His mechanistic view of human behavior, while controversial, has inspired diverse fields from liberalism to game theory and IR. Despite criticisms of its historical accuracy and ethical foundations, Hobbes’ work remains essential for understanding the evolution of Western political thought.

Would you like an analysis of Hobbes’ influence on modern democracy or its relevance to contemporary global challenges?