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A Level Biology : Content > Topic 8B : The Brain, Behavour & Disease > Flashcards

Topic 8B : The Brain, Behavour & Disease Flashcards

1
Q

what is the largest part of the brain

A

cerebrum

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2
Q

what makes up the cerebrum

A

left and right cerebral hemispheres

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3
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the thin outer layer of the cerebrum

cortex has a large surface area so its highly folded to fir into the skull

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4
Q

in what is the cerebrum involved

A

vision, learning, thinking, emotions and movement

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5
Q

what part of the cerebrum is involved in vision

A

back of the cortex

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6
Q

what part of the cerebrum is involved in thinking

A

front of cortex

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7
Q

where is hypothalamus located

A

beneath the middle part of the brain

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8
Q

what is the role of the hypothalamus

A

maintenance of body temp at normal level as well as producing hormones that control the pituitary gland.

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9
Q

where is the medulla oblongata located

A

at the base of the brain, at the top of the spinal cord

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10
Q

what is the role of medulla oblongata

A

controls breathing and heart rate

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11
Q

where is the cerebellum located

A

underneath the cerebrum and it also has a folders cortex

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12
Q

what is the role of the cerebellum

A

coordinates movement and balance

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13
Q

what are the different types of brain scanners

A

computed tomography

magnetic resonance imaging

functional magnetic resonance imaging

positron emission tomography

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14
Q

how are CT scans used to investigate brain structure and function

A

the scan shows major structures in the brain but it doesn’t show the function.

if the scan shows a diseased or damaged brain structure and the patient has lost some function, the function of that prt of the brain can be worked out

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15
Q

how are CT scans used to diagnose medical probelms

A

they can show damaged or diseased areas of the brain

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16
Q

why are CT scans dangerous

A

they use x-rays which can cause mutations in DNA leading to cancer

however, the risk of developing cancer is very low

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17
Q

how are MRI scans used to investigate brain structure and function

A

they give higher quality images for soft tissue types and better resolution between tissue types for an overall better resolution final picture.

they allow you to clearly see the difference between normal and abnormal brain tissue.

brain function can only be worked out by looking at damaged areas.

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18
Q

how are MRI scans used for medical diagnosis

A

they show damaged or diseased areas

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19
Q

what do MRI scans use

A

strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce cross-section images

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20
Q

how are fMRI scans used to investigate brain structure and function

A

they give detailed, high resolution picture of the brains structure but also used to research the function of the brain.

they show changes in brain activity as they happen.

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21
Q

how are fMRI scans used for medical diagnosis

A

they show damaged or diseased areas of the brain and allow you to study conditions caused by abnormal activity in the brain

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22
Q

how are PET scans used to investigate brain structure and function

A

a radioactive tracer is introduced into the body and is absorbed into the tissues.

the scanner detects the radioactivity of the tracer.

the scan produces very detailed pictures that can be used to investigate both structure and function at the same time.

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23
Q

how are PET scans used for medical diagnosis

A

they show areas in the brain that are unusually inactive or active so they are useful for studying conditions that change the brains activity.

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24
Q

habituation

A

the reduced response to an unimportant stimulus after repeated exposure over time

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25
Q

what is the purpose of habituation

A

so animals don’t waste energy responding to unimportant stimuli and can spend more time doing other activities for their survival

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26
Q

describe habituation in terms of electrical impulses

A

repeated exposure to stimuli decreases the amount of calcium ions entering the presynaptic neurone due to calcium channels being less responsive.

the decrease in influx of calcium ions means less neurotransmitters are released from vesicles into synaptic cleft so fewer neurotransmitters can bund to receptors in postsynaptic membrane.

fewer sodium ion channels on postsynaptic membrane open so theres a reduced chance of threshold for an action potential being reached on the postsynaptic membrane.

fewer signals are sent to the effector to carry out the response.

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27
Q

visual cortex

A

an area of the cerebral cortex at the back of the brain

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28
Q

what is the role of the visual cortex

A

to receive and process visual information from either left or right eye.

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29
Q

ocular dominance columns

A

neurones grouped together in columns

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30
Q

right ocular dominance columns

A

when neurones receive information from the right eye

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31
Q

left ocular dominance columns

A

when neurones receive information from the left eye

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32
Q

who discovered the structure of the visual cortex

A

hubel and wiesel

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33
Q

switched dominance

A

when ocular dominance columns for the open eye had expanded to take over the other columns that weren’t being stimulated so the neurones in the visual cortex have switched dominance

34
Q

critical period

A

period in early life when its critical for an organism to be exposed to visual stimuli for its visual cortex to develop period

35
Q

how was the visual development investigated on humans

A

by looking at cataracts in the eye

36
Q

when baby has a cataract

A

should be removed within the first few months otherwise the visual system wont develop properly and vision will be damaged for life.

37
Q

cataract

A

makes the lens go cloudy causing blurry vision

38
Q

when adult has a cataract

A

not serious

when cataract is removed normal vision comes back straight away because the visual system is already developed in an adult.

39
Q

what is the monkey study for the visual development

A

raise monkeys from births in three groups for 6 months.

group 1 were the control : 2 eyes open
group 2 : 2 eyes stitched
group 3 : monocular deprivation

40
Q

what was the purpose of the monkey study

A

to test the monkeys to see whether they can see using each eye

sensitivity of retinal cells

activity of nerves in visual cortex in response to stimuli

41
Q

monocular deprivation

A

one eye open

42
Q

what were the results of the monkey study

A

group 2 : impaired vision

group 3 : blind in deprived eye

retinal cells responsive in all groups

cortical activity was reduced in parts of the brain that process information from deprived eye.

adults undergoing same tests showed no difference between groups and all could see.

43
Q

conclusion for the monkey study

A

there is a critical window for visual neural development which requires stimuli from the eye.

if window is missed the monkey is blind because of events happening in the brain

44
Q

how did hubel and wiesel use kittens to show visual development

A

kittens are born blind with their eyes shut

they used monocular deprivation at different stages of development and different length of time

45
Q

results for the kitten study

A

deprivation at 3 weeks had no effect

deprivation at 3 months had no effect as it was passed the critical window and connections to the brain have been made.

critical period is at about 4 weeks so lack of stimulation from the kitten’s environment at time severely affected the visual development.

46
Q

the effect of depriving the eye from light during critical window

A

eye doesn’t receive stimulation

action potentials dont travel along neurones to the corresponding ocular columns in the visual cortex

connections between optic nerve and visual cortex becomes weaker so vision doesn’t develop properly

47
Q

the effect of leaving the eye open during critical window

A

eye receives stimulation

action potentials travels along neurones to the corresponding ocular columns in the visual cortex

connections between optic nerve and visual cortex are strengthened so vision develops properly

48
Q

arguments against using animals in medical research

A

can cause pun and distress to animals

animals are different to humans so drugs tested on animals may have different effect in humans.

there are alternatives to using animals in research eg using cultures of human cells

animals have the right to not be experimented

49
Q

arguments for using animals in medical research

A

animals are similar to humans so research has led to medical breakthroughs

only done when absolutely necessary and rules are followed

the only way to study how a drug affects the whole body and behaviour

humans have greater right to life than animals

50
Q

nature vs nurture debate

A

centres around the question which is more influential genes, inheritance and biology (nature) or the interaction with the environment (nurture).

51
Q

what are the different methods used to compare the contributions of nature and nurture to brain development in humans

A

abilities of newborn babies

brain damage studies

animal experiments

twin studies

cross-cultural studies

52
Q

abilities of newborn babies

A

their brain hasn’t been affected by environment

study the brains to see what functions they are born with and how developed parts of the brain.

babies are born with characteristic behaviour suggesting that its due to nature eg crying,smiling and grasping

they don’t know how to speak so this is due to nurture

53
Q

cross cultural studies

A

children brought up in different cultures have different environmental influences eg beliefs and education.

scientists can study the effects of a different upbringing on brain development by comparing large groups of children who are the same age but from different cultures.

similarities are due to nature

differences are due to nurture

54
Q

animal experiments

A

scientists experimented on genetically similar and genetically different with different environments

55
Q

how many experiments were a part of animal experiments

A

two

rat experiment and mice experiment

56
Q

rat experiment

A

experimented genetically similar rats providing them different environmental conditions to find the effects of nurture on brain development

rats raised in stimulating environment develops large brain size and better scores and problem solving skills

rats raised in isolation have similar brain abnormalities to those found in schizophrenic parents so nurture plays a role in brain development

57
Q

mice experiment

A

scientists experimented on genetically different mice

one mouse was genetically engineered lacking a gene and the other was normal

engineered mice developed enlarged fluid filled brain and the other was normal so nature affects the development of brain

58
Q

twin studies case one

A

identical twins raised in different environments and found that similarities between them are due to nature and differences are due to nurture

for example very similar IQ scores suggests nature plays a role in intelligence

(even if raised separated, twins have the same environment in the womb)

59
Q

twin studies case two

A

identical twins and non identical twins raised in same environment as its hard to tell where differences in identical twins in similar environment are due to nature or nurture so non identical twins act as a control to cancel out the influence of the environment

any difference between the two sets of twins is likely to be because of nature

60
Q

advantages of newborn studies

A

newborn babies are not affected by the environment so we can see which aspects of brain development are due to nature

61
Q

parkinson’s disease

A

brain disorder affecting motor skills (movement) of people

62
Q

what causes lack of dopamine

A

the neurones in the parts of the brain that control movement are destroyed and they usually produce dopamine

63
Q

what causes shaking and slow movement (parkinson’s disease)

A

less dopamine released as a result of damaged neurones into the synaptic cleft so less dopamine available to bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane.

fewer sodium ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane open so postsynaptic cell is less likely to depolarise leading to fewer action potentials being produced

64
Q

drug for parkinson’s disease

A

l-dopa

65
Q

how does l-dopa work

A

when given, its absorbed into the brain and converted into dopamine by the enzyme dopa-decarboxylase which increases the level of dopamine in the brain

a higher level of dopamine means more nerve impulses are transmitted across synapses in the parts controlling movement allowing sufferers to have more control over their movement

66
Q

why cant dopamine be given to treat parkinson’s disease

A

it cant enter the brain

67
Q

what is depression caused by

A

low level of serotonin leading to fewer nerve impulses being sent to parts of brain controlling mood

68
Q

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

A

increase serotonin by preventing its reuptake at synapses

69
Q

how does MDMA work

A

increases the level of serotonin by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin into presynaptic neurone after triggering an action potential by binding and blocking the reuptake proteins on presynaptic membrane.

it also triggers release of serotonin from presynaptic neurones so serotonin levels stay high in the synapse causing depolarisation of postsynaptic neurones in parts of brain controlling mood.

70
Q

MDMA effect

A

mood elevation

71
Q

human genome project

A

13 year long project that identified all of the genes found in the human DNA as well as common genetic variation in people.

72
Q

where is the information obtain from HGP stored

A

databases

73
Q

how are databases containing information from human genome project used

A

identify genes and so proteins involved in a disease

drugs based on the information are created that target identified proteins

74
Q

personalised medicine and treatments

A

when drug companies use information from HGP design new drugs tailored to people with variations that make drugs less effective

doctors also personalise treatments by using genetic information to predict how well their body will respond to different drugs

75
Q

ethical, social and moral issues related to human genome project

A

creating drugs for specific variations increases research costs for drug companies so nee drugs would be more expensive and become more accessible to wealthier people.

people might refused an expensive drug because their genetic makeup indicates it wont be as effective but the only drug available.

information held at databases could be used by others eg insurance companies.

revealing a drug might not work could be psychologically damaging

76
Q

how are microorganisms genetically engineered to produce drugs

A

gene for the protein (drug) is isolated using restriction enzymes

gene is copied using PCR

copies inserted into plasmids

plasmids transferred into microorganisms

modified microorganisms are grown in large containers so they can divide and reproduce lots of useful proteins

protein can be purified and used as a drug

77
Q

how are plants genetically engineered to produce drugs

A

gene for protein is inserted into bacterium

bacterium infects a cell

bacterium inserts the gene into the plant cell DNA

plant cell grown into adult plant so the whole plant contains a copy of the gene in every cell

protein produced from the gene can be purified from the plant tissues or the protein could be delivered by eating the plant

78
Q

how are animals genetically engineered to produce drugs

A

gene for protein injected into nucleus of a fertilised animal egg cell

egg cell is implanted into adult animal and it grows into whole animal that contains copy of gene in every cell

protein produced can be purified from the milk of animal

79
Q

benefits of GMOs

A

agricultural crops can be modified so that they have higher yields or are more nutritious to reduce the risk of famine of malnutrition.

modified to have pest resistance so that fewer pesticides are needed reducing costs and environmental problems related to pesticides.

vaccines produced in plant tissues don’t need to be refrigerated making it accessible to more people

cheaper for plants and animals as after they can reproduce using conventional farming methods

80
Q

risks of GMOs

A

its wrong to generically modify animals for human benefit

unforeseen consequences

some people are concerned about the transmission of genetic material

A Level Biology : Content (18 decks)

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