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Semester 2 Psych > Theme 4 - Questioning Reality > Flashcards

Theme 4 - Questioning Reality Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 2 things we question with?

A
  1. Goal
  2. Evidence
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2
Q

Where can questioning happen?

A
  1. Privately as you engage with something
  2. Asking questions out loud and by discussing topics
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3
Q

What happens over time with questioning?

A

It may go deeper

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4
Q

How do you question arguments?

A
  • are they logical?
  • are they potentially biased by the characteristics of the researcher
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5
Q

What’s the issue with interpretations?

A
  • Do not take interpretations of results at face value?
  • Consider limitations and tensions
  • authors might have missed something
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6
Q

Why do we question things?

A
  • develop knowledge
  • psychology has developed because of questioning
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7
Q

What’s the aim of asking questions and challenging concepts?

A

Aimed to improve our understanding of these things that we question. This allows us to plan and act in a more informed manner

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8
Q

How do we experience an illusion?

A

When our perception of an object doesn’t match its true physical characteristics

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9
Q

What are the 4 types of perceptual illusion?

A
  1. Distortions (geometric illusions)
  2. Ambiguous figures (reversible)
  3. Paradoxical figures (impossible objects)
  4. Fictions
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10
Q

What happens in illusions of movement?

A
  • we ass things to pictures that aren’t physically there
  • it is possible to perceive movement without a successive pattern of retinal stimulation - called apparent movement
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11
Q

How do theories of perception differ?

A

Whether they regard perception as direct (bottom up/data driven) or as indirect (top-down/conceptually driven)

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12
Q

What do we do to avoid sensory load?

A

We need to select from all the sensory stimulation which surrounds us

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13
Q

What is an illusion?

A

An instance of a wrong or misinterpreted perception of a sensory experience

A deceptive appearance or impression

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14
Q

What can cause us to miss large changes?

A

People don’t know where to direct their attention

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15
Q

What we see depends on what?

A

Where our attention is - which is limited in focus and capacity

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16
Q

How wide is the human fovea?

A

1.5mm

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17
Q

What does the human fovea consist of?

A

Consists of cones

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18
Q

How much of the visual cortex is accounted for in processing foveal output?

A

50%

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19
Q

What does the human fovea do?

A

Has to move around rapidly to piece together the scenes

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20
Q

What happens in illusions?
What approach is this?

A

Neurons supporting one percept become fatigued, eventually neurons supporting the other percept take over until they become fatigued
This is repeated, increasing quickly

BOTTOM UP APPROACH

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21
Q

Most participants don’t experience reversal unless….
What approach is this?

A
  1. Informed of the ambiguity
  2. Told what the 2 interpretations are
  3. Intend to interpret the other percept

TOP DOWN APPROACH

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22
Q

Perception is not…?

A

Passive

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23
Q

What does perception involve?

A

Involved interplay between low-level processes, and higher-level cognitive processes

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24
Q

Perceptual input is always more or less…?

A

Ambiguous

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25
Q

Why are ambiguous stimuli constructed?

A

To maximise the ambiguity between 2 alternatives

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26
Q

What approach do visual illusions take?

A

Holistic approach to how we view facial illusions

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27
Q

How does illusion sensitivity differ?

A

Male vs female
Mathematical scientists vs social scientists
British vs Japanese
Children vs adults

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28
Q

What does WEIRD stand for?

A

Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic

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29
Q

What are East Asian thoughts?

A

Holistic, integrated context

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30
Q

What are western thoughts?

A

Analytic, focuses on detail

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31
Q

What gender is illusion stronger in?

A

Female

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32
Q

What science is illusion stronger in?

A

Social scientists

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33
Q

Is illusion stronger in Japan or British?

A

Japan

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34
Q

How do young people view illusions?

A

Don’t see it at all

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35
Q

Materialism meaning?

A

Mind and matter

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36
Q

What model does the neuropsychological approach take?

A

Takes a functional model

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37
Q

What does the neuropsychological approach assume?

A

Assumes the components in models are discrete neural areas - modularity

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38
Q

What does the neuropsychological approach use?

A

Uses case studies - looks for people where injury or illness has affected their brains

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39
Q

What does the neuropsychological approach do?

A

Examines the effects of behaviour and performance

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40
Q

What does the modularity of mind assume?

A

Modular systems in the brain are automatic
Modules are bottom up
Modules are impenetrable and encapsulated

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41
Q

What do central systems do?

A
  • take inputs from all modules
    Information flows in all directions
    Give rise to thoughts, ideas, and beliefs
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42
Q

What are delusions?

A

A false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality

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43
Q

What are some problems with the definition of delusion?

A
  • belief in something true could be delusional if you held the belief for the wrong reasons
  • does delusion have to be a belief?
  • can’t a belief which is shared by everyone still be a delusion?
  • does belief have to concern external reality?
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44
Q

Delusions are…

A

Fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence

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45
Q

What is capgras delusion?

A

The delusion that familiar people have been replaced by imposters

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46
Q

What is mirror-sign delusion?

A

Inability to recognise oneself in the mirror

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47
Q

What is fregoli delusion?

A

Unfamiliar people are actually people you know who have disguised themselves and they have bad intentions towards you

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48
Q

What is the goal of Bayesian inference?

A

Optimise beliefs about parameter of interest

49
Q

How does uncertainty play a key role?

A

When we attribute low uncertainty to something, then it has a bigger effect on our perceptions and decisions

50
Q

What is the most popular hypothesis about psychosis?

A

It results from patients underweighting their prior beliefs

51
Q

What is a key control mechanism for neuronal gain?
What has abnormalities in this receptor been linked to?

A

NMDA receptor
Linked to schizophrenia

52
Q

What is a conspiracy theory?

A

A proposed plot by powerful people or organisations working together in secret to accomplish some goal

53
Q

What 3 things correlate with conspiracy belief?

A
  1. Paranoid ideation
  2. Schizotypy and similar personality traits
  3. Belief in things like witchcraft
54
Q

What social and situational factors are behind conspiracy belief?

A

Attempts to reduce uncertainty and reduction in feelings of powerlessness

55
Q

What are the motivations to hold a conspiracy belief?

A
  • instrumental
  • knowledge
  • value-expressive
  • ego-defensive
56
Q

Why are people drawn to conspiracy?

A
  • it is amusing or aligns with general belief
  • selective attention to media and social networks
  • Increasing feelings of threat
  • people define themselves in terms of these beliefs
57
Q

What did Douglas 2014 find? Conspiracy theories

A

People were less likely to engage in positive environmental behaviours in conspiracy condition compared to a control or a factual condition

58
Q

What did a study find about conspiracy theories?

A

Exposure to the conspiracy theory increases feelings of political powerlessness

59
Q

What did Douglas find about the awareness that conspiracies can have an effect on people?

A

Showed that people under-estimated how much their attitudes are effected by conspiracy exposure

60
Q

How can conspiracy theories relate to prejudice?

A

Prejudice towards our groups is associated with increased conspiracy belief about that group

61
Q

What did Mahony state about conspiracy theories?

A

The majority of interventions were ineffective in terms of changing conspiracy beliefs

62
Q

What is social constructionism? (Berger and luckmann)

A

The view that reality is constructed by and through social processes and the associated use of language f3

63
Q

What does social constructionism believe?

A

Believes all knowledge in the world in constructed in the same way, that by talking about something we ‘make it real’

64
Q

How is knowledge built?

A

Built from the linguistic expressions of particular communities

65
Q

What should social language be about?

A

Should be about how language, signs and symbols are used to construct particular views of life and people (reality)

66
Q

Where did the idea about constructionism come from?

A
  1. Marxists
  2. Philosophy
  3. Pragmatism
  4. Linguistics
67
Q

Many theories in psychology are underpinned by what?

A

The assumptions of natural science

68
Q

When was the crisis in social psychology?

A

Late 1960s, late 1980s

69
Q

How does social constructionism link to psychological research?

A

We can claim to understand processes involved in how phenomena are socially constructed

70
Q

What approach is social constructionism associated with?

A

Qualitative approach

Gathering naturalistic data from interviews, focus groups, internet blogs and discussion posts and interpreting these

71
Q

How do we systematically interpret data?

A

Through coding talk and text

72
Q

What psychological processes are explored when doing constructionist qualitative research?

A
  1. Identity formation and change
  2. Emotional change and transition
  3. Psychological interventions
73
Q

Neurological meaning?

A

Brain cell functioning (neurons), cognitive functioning

74
Q

What is neurodivergence classified as?

A

Developmental disorder

75
Q

How common is neurodivergence?

A

At least 1 in 100 people have it
1%

76
Q

What are some impacts of diverging?

A
  • sensory processing of info
  • perceive info to interact in social
  • autism, adhd, dyslexia
  • not mental illness
77
Q

What is the law as a social contract?

A

Humans choose to create contracts with others in their social context

78
Q

What does punishment stem from?

A

Stems from the need to enforce compliance with this contract so long as people have freely accepted it and then broken it

79
Q

What do social contract theories fit into?

A

Fit the interpretation of the crime as harmful and immoral, as well as offenders deserving punishment

80
Q

How has crime shifted?

A

The approach continues to see criminality as inherently wrong but responses to crime often focus on treatment of the individual

81
Q

Crime is…

A

Prevalent

82
Q

How is the law socially constructed?

A

Reflects political interest

83
Q

Law is not …

A

Immutable - homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967 but is still a crime in many other countries

84
Q

Name 4 things wrong with the criminal justice system?

A
  1. Not all sectors of society are equally policed (e.g systematic racism)
  2. Not all people can defend themselves legally to the same degree (poverty)
  3. Consequences of a conviction may differ from different social groups
  4. Prisons produce harm that can enhance pre-existing psychological and social problems or produce new ones - ‘colleges of crime’
85
Q

APA definition of forensic psychology?

A

The application of clinical specialities

86
Q

What is the most frequent duty of forensic psychologists?

A

Psychological assessment of individuals

87
Q

What is forensic psychology referred to?

A

Refers to investigative and criminological psychology - applying psychological theory to criminal investigation

88
Q

What is implied about those who create crime?

A

It is implies that those who offend need to be assessed and treated with therapeutic setting

89
Q

When does the medicalisation of deviance occur?

A

Occurs when dominant norms or laws drive the definitions and diagnosis of illness

90
Q

What to identical twins provide?

A

Monozygotic twins provide a unique opportunity to investigate the role of genetic factors on different traits

91
Q

What can twin studies show?

A

If personality, intelligence, physical or mental health disorders are solely determined by genetics, then identical twin studies can provide evidence for this

92
Q

Who carried out the first psychological testing utilising twins?

A

Thorndike (1905)

93
Q

What were the 3 tests twins were given?

A

A test - find and identity the number of As in a text
Word test - find and identify words that contain 2 specified letters
Opposite test - write a word that is the opposite in meaning of a stated word

94
Q

What were the findings from these 3 tests?

A

None of the 3 claims examined provided evidence that environment is responsible for resemblance in mental traits among twins

95
Q

What are limitations of Thorndike’s sample?

A
  1. In 1905 it was not understood that there were identical and non-identical twins
  2. It is unclear which type of twins made up Thorndike’s sample
96
Q

What are the 2 distinct type of twins according to Curtis Merrinman?

A

Fraternal and Duplicate

97
Q

What are fraternal twins?

A

2-egg origin - should be no greater resemblance than ordinary siblings

98
Q

What are duplicate twins?

A

1-egg origin, should show higher degree of resemblance than the fraternal

99
Q

What did merriman use twin studies to show?

A

Further evidence that genes are the powerful deciding factor in human abilities and the impact of the environment is minimal

100
Q

Who were the first to compare identical vs non-identical twins in relation to IQ?

A

Tallman and Wingfield

101
Q

What did Cyril Burt do?

A

MZ twins raised together, MZ twins raised apart, siblings raised together, siblings raised apart - he investigated intelligence

102
Q

Cyril Burt findings?

A

Correlation between the intelligence of MZ twins is significantly higher than the correlation in siblings, and the environment has minimal impact

103
Q

Virtually all researchers accept that…

A
  1. Both heredity and environment contribute to intelligence
  2. Heredity and environment interact in various ways
  3. Extremely poor / highly enriched environments can interfere with the realisation of a persons intelligence, regardless of their heredity
104
Q

What did Bouchard and McGue (2003) look at?

A

Looked at genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences - included general intelligence - looked at the findings of numerous studies, to build an overall picture of how genetic/environmental factors influence general intelligence

105
Q

What was Cyril Burt accused of in 1976?

A
  1. Faking data
  2. Inventing research assistance
  3. Creating fictious co-authors for his papers
  4. Inadequately describing his data collection methods
  5. Incorrect use of statistical methods
106
Q

Why did Burt fake his study/results?

A

He believed that the genetic influence on intelligence justified the status quo of the class system in early 1900s Britain, the intelligence class, who are less intelligent, are best placed in low paid positions

107
Q

What did rinderman do?

A

Surveyed experts in the field of intelligence research about beliefs on intelligence issues, and personal characteristics

108
Q

How can we trust psychological evidence?

A

Peer review
Open science movement (1990s) - encouraging transparency and sharing of data
Many journals will require you to upload your raw data and statistical analysis to an open repository

109
Q

What does there need to be diversity in?

A
  • participant samples
  • theorists
  • researchers within developmental psychology
110
Q

What are descriptive norms?

A

Determine what ‘is’
What is perceived as typical, common or normal

111
Q

What are injunctive norms?

A

Determine what ‘ought to be’
What is perceived as appropriate, desirable, or normative

112
Q

Norms are….

A

Group dependent

113
Q

What is a key problem in psychological research?

A

Much of the research is on North American or Western European, white, English middle class participants, and findings based on this group have come
To define the norms of development

114
Q

Universal claims are…

A

Culturally ignorant

115
Q

What did Keller 2007 find?

A

Cross-cultural variation in child socialisation

116
Q

What did lancy et al (2010) find?

A

Cross cultural differences in the kind of task parents engage their infants in

117
Q

What may be the consequences of applying knowledge that is developed within a very specific setting to other settings?

A
  • creating standards
  • previous knowledge may not apply to the other settings
  • people may introduce changes that are counter-productive to others needs
118
Q

What is wrong with the BPS definition of psychology?

A

What is science?
What is the mind?
What is behaviour?

Semester 2 Psych (5 decks)

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