The rise of Mussolini 1919-26

Question 1

What did Italy gain from the peace settlement of 1919-20?

Answer 1

• Trentino, South Tyrol and Istria from Austro-Hungary, along with part of Dalmatia and the port of Trieste.
• However, Orlando had hoped to gain the port of Fiume, the whole of Dalmatia and a number of colonial territories.

Question 2

What was the ‘mutilated victory’?

Answer 2

• The idea that the Italian effort in WW1 had not been rewarded sufficiently.
• Despite achieving most of the territorial gains promised in the Treaty of London, many Italians were dissatisfied and believed that they should have gained everything promised.
• The most controversial demand, the port of Fiume, was not even in the Treaty of London.
• This feeling was exploited by the Nationalists and Fascists which caused political instability.

Question 3

What were the events of the occupation of Fiume?

Answer 3

• In September 1919, D’Annunzio, a Nationalist, led 2,000 former soldiers and seized control of Fiume.
• Allied troops withdrew and did not resist the takeover.
• During the 15 month occupation, Nationalists flocked to the city, which had a festive atmosphere and many elements of later fascist regimes such as the Roman salute or the title of Duce.
• Giolitti and Yugoslavia agreed that Fiume was an independent city in Nov 1920.
• It took Giolitti until December 1920 to send in the army and remove D’Annunzio.

Question 4

What was the significance of the occupation of Fiume?

Answer 4

• It became a symbol of nationalist defiance.
• It demonstrated the weakness of the gov with their reluctance to act and the slow speed with which they intervened.
• It gave opponents more confidence, revealing that force could be used to achieve political aims. Influenced Mussolini and the Fascist regime.

Question 5

How did WW1 affect the Italian economy?

Answer 5

• Businesses were affected when military contracts stopped which brought mass unemployment. 2 million by 1919.
• High rates of inflation had a huge impact on the cost of living and savings in the middle class were badly damaged.
• Forced many people to the political extremes.

Question 6

What evidence is there of social discontent 1919-20?

Answer 6

• Huge increase of strikes in 1919-20 which became known as Biennio Rosso or Two Red Years.
• In 1919, there were 1,663 strikes in industry and 208 in agriculture.
• In 1920, the ‘occupation of the factories’ took place in which 400,000 workers took over their factories.
• Food riots broke out in 1919
• Some Socialists called for a Communist revolution like that in Russia but this was not a serious threat.

Question 7

What concessions did the government make as a result of the rise in social discontent 1919-20?

Answer 7

• Introduced a minimum wage.
• Established an eight-hour working day.
• Officially recognised factory grievance committees.

Question 8

What evidence is there of discontent among the elites and middle classes?

Answer 8

• The initiatives that the gov made caused discontent among wealthier people. They feared a loss of influence and a Socialist takeover. Amplified the Socialist movement.
• They were hit hard by the economic problems and often did not have unions to represent their interests.
• They formed associations to represent their interests against those of big businesses and the working class.
• These groups began to turn to Fascists as they would protect their economic, social and political interests.

Question 9

What were the political reforms that happened after WW1?

Answer 9

• Orlando implemented universal male suffrage in an attempt to win more electoral support. A reward for soldiers who fought in WW1.
• In 1919, Nitti introduced proportional representation for the Chamber of Deputies. This was hoped to reduce support for extremists but was proven wrong.
• These led to the emergence of the PSI (Socialist Party) and the PPI (Catholic Popolari Party)

Question 10

What were the weaknesses of the Socialist movement?

Answer 10

• Despite winning elections in many town councils, they were heavily divided. Often failed to work effectively and lacked a clear leader that could unify them.
• They adopted violent tactics to achieve their aims which attracted supporter but also encouraged others to support Fascists or Nationalists. Mussolini exploited this.

Question 11

What was the PPI?

Answer 11

• Founded in 1919 by the Sicilian priest Don Luigi Sturzo.
• It consisted of a coalition of Catholics who wanted to improve the living standards of Italian peasants.
• They supported social reforms, including the foundations of a welfare state.
• Prepared to enter coalitions with the Liberals as long as they were granted meaningful political concessions.

Question 12

What was result of the 1919 elections?

Answer 12

• Saw the PSI and the PPI become the two most powerful parties in the Chamber of Deputies, with 156 and 100 Deputies respectively.
• Giolitti’s Liberals only won 91 seats, while the right wing Liberals won 23 seats.

Question 13

What was the impact of the 1919 elections?

Answer 13

• As the Socialists or the Popolari did not have enough deputies to rule and would not work with each other, a weak Liberal gov would rule.
• In 1920, Giolitti established a coalition with the PPI but his anti-clerical past made it difficult to govern effectively.
• The elections were the beginning of the end for the Liberal state.

Question 14

What was the Fasci di Combattimento?

Answer 14

• In 1919, Mussolini, a former Socialist journalist and radical, founded the new political group.
• Mussolini prioritised action over political theory, and the ideology of the new movement was unclear.

Question 15

What did the Fasci di Combattimento’s manifesto call for?

Answer 15

• A minimum wage and an eight hour working day.
• The confiscation of Church property.
• Control of the banks and stock exchange.
• The restoration of Italy’s national strength and prestige.
• These policies were intended to attract support from different social classes within Italy. (dual policy)

Question 16

What negatives did Mussini’s fascism emphasise to attract political support?

Answer 16

• The growing threat of socialism.
• The weakness of the Italian political system and democracy.
• The failure to maintain law and order.
• The ToV and mutilated victory.

Question 17

How did the Fascists do the 1919 elections?

Answer 17

• A failure for the Fascists. Did not win any seats, and achieved fewer than 5,000 votes out of 275,000 in their powerhouse of Milan.
• Seemed that the movement was on the verge of collapse, with only 4,000 active supporters in 1919.
• It was Mussolini’s exploitation of conservative fears of Socialism that saved the movement.

Question 18

How did the Fascists gain support after 1919?

Answer 18

• The occupation of the factories in 1920 convinced many that Italy was on the verge of a revolution and that Fascists would defend them.
• The movement moved from urban to rural which resulted in more support. Agricultural employers called for help against local Socialist or Catholic unions.
• Fascists organised the squadristi who were led by former army officers. They wore black shirts and targeted Socialists.
• Invaded villages, beat up union leaders, engaged in strike breaking and intimidated voters during elections.
• They were often helped by the army and police, who saw the fascists as a way to regain control of certain areas.

Question 19

How did Mussolini use the squadristi to his benefit?

Answer 19

• Put himself as the leader of the fascist movement, and took credit for the actions of the squadristi. Despite some squads resisting his control, he persuaded the majority of them.
• With M as a unifying leader the movement could present itself as powerful, stable and national.
• Used the squadristi to present himself as the only person who could keep the violence in check. This appealed to both the radicals and the traditional elites.
• By 1921, the squadristi controlled significant areas of the countryside, placing M in a powerful position.

Question 20

What was the pact of pacification?

Answer 20

• In 1921, M proposed a pact between the Fascists and Socialist trade unions. Conservative supporters did not want the violence to go to far, and the pact made the M look like a peacemaker.
• The Pact failed as many Fascist leaders rejected it and looked about for a new leader.
• Threatened to split the movement but no clear alternative to M existed, so he survived when he abandoned it.

Question 21

When was the PNF set up and what was the affect of it?

Answer 21

• Set up in October 1921 by Mussolini.
• It provided more co-ordination to the movement and gave M more control.
• Local branches were set up, in contrast to the looser organisations of the violent squads.
• Those in control were loyal to Mussolini.
• Membership grew from 200,000 in 1921 to 300,000 by 1922, and it became the party of the middle class.
• This made other parties consider including the Fascists in coalitions, in order to normalise them so less radical.

Question 22

What were the policies of the New Programme in 1921

Answer 22

• An eight hour working day with exceptions for agricultural or industrial needs.
• Limiting citizen freedoms in relation to the needs of the nation.
• Taxes should be proportional to income and there should be no forcible confiscations.
• There were no references to confiscating the property of the Catholic Church.
• Military service should be obligatory.
• Italy’s influence in the Med should be expanded.

Question 23

What was Mussolini’s political strategy after 1921?

Answer 23

• Declared his opposition to divorce to attract Catholics.
• Wanted to remove or weaken earlier radical demands for economic or social reforms to attract conservatives.
• He emphasised what he opposed instead of what he supported. Gave vague speeches that lacked detailed outlines of his policies.
• Benefited from weaknesses of other parties like the PPI who were no longer supported by the Pope.

Question 24

Where did key support for Fascism come from in 1922?

Answer 24

• Landowners and civil servants.
• Shopkeepers, small merchants and small business owners.
• Teachers and university students.
• Artisans and skilled craftsmen.
• The Fascists could attract students while also attracting their conservative parents.

Question 25

What were Fascist syndicates?

Answer 25

• As the Fascists gained control and broke up Socialist and Catholic trade unions, workers were forced to join Fascist syndicates to gain employment.
• Some were attracted to these because they disliked the violence of the Socialist trade unions, while others were driven by the necessity of gaining work.
• Other workers liked their policies on fair wages and prices, or providing peasants with land.
• Employers tolerated this as it was a good alternative to Socialism.

Question 26

How did governmental instability 1920-22 help the Fascists?

Answer 26

• Post-war government’s were unable to deal with the economic and social consequences of WW1. Seen as weak.
• Parties that could have united against the fascists failed to work together. Between 1919 and 1922, 5 successive governments collapsed, leading to uncertainty.
• In 1921, Giolitti included the Fascists in his government. This was a big mistake, giving the Fascists an air of legitimacy and a foothold in government. Weakened resistance to Fascist violence.
• Bonomi tried to control the squads but failed. This meant that Fascist violence was virtually tolerated.

Question 27

What was the general strike in 1922?

Answer 27

• The Socialists called a general strike which gave the Fascists an excuse to attack strikers openly across the country.
• Although the strike failed due to low support, Fascists fought running battles with Socialists. They burned down the building that housed Avanti! (socialist newspaper).
• The Fascists took credit for ending the strike and criticised the gov for taking no action against Socialism.
• Elites became increasingly supportive of Fascism as they were the only ones taking action the Socialist threat.

Question 28

How did Mussolini develop a dual policy to gain power?

Answer 28

• Encouraging black shirt violence, drawing up plans for a black shirt seizure of power.
• Working with established politicians to persuade them that the PNF was a serious political movement that could work in a coalition.
• Although this seems contradictory, M used the two to reinforce each other. Giolitti was forced to listen to M due to the black shirts. But M knew they were no match for the army.

Question 29

What was the March on Rome?

Answer 29

• M and the Fascists made plans for a march on Rome in 1922. It was made to mimic Italian hero Garibaldi’s march on Rome in the 1860s.
• M was more doubtful than others as he thought it could lose him his air of respectability. He hoped the march would persuade authorities to give him power anyway.
• Squadristi gathered in three locations around 20 miles from Rome. The turnout was not good, and they were poorly armed.
• Despite this, it was a propaganda coup, which resulted in M becoming prime minister.

Question 30

What was the role of King Victor Emmanuel III in the gaining of power from Mussolini?

Answer 30

• He eventually refused to authorise the use of martial law against the March of Rome, after initially agreeing with it.
• He supported Mussolini as Prime Minister, after initially hoping he would serve under Salandra.

Question 31

Why did the King support Mussolini?

Answer 31

• He was afraid of the potential for civil war and was unsure if the army was strong enough. Many in the army also supported the Fascists.
• The King’s cousin, the Duke of Aosta was a Fascist supporter who wanted to take the throne.
• He hoped to have more control over Mussolini if he was part of the government.
• The traditional political system was collapsing and could not provide political stability. No alternative but to make Mussolini prime minister.

Question 32

What was the significance of the March of Rome?

Answer 32

• Depicted as the catalyst for M taking power, but the events did not match the propaganda.
• M arrived in Rome before the Fascist supporters even arrived, and there was no violent takeover of power.
• The 50,000 black shirts and army troops that marched through Rome were celebrating the achievement of power.

Question 33

How did Mussolini control the PNF when he became Prime Minister?

Answer 33

• He wanted to end the violence and return to normal constitutional political methods. Made concessions to the Church and passed measures favourable to industrialists and landowners.
• Made radical Roberto Farinacci party secretary which gave him more control over the radical branch of the party.
• Mussolini wanted to avoid a political reaction against the Fascist movement at this time.

Question 34

What was the Parliamentary compromise and coercion that Mussolini made when he became prime minister?

Answer 34

• M was still in a vulnerable position when he became prime minister. Only 32 out of the 535 deputies were from the PNF.
• He made a speech that indicated the Fascists were prepared to close the parliament and gain full powers that would allow M to govern by himself.
• He promised to uphold constitutional liberties but made it clear that he would dissolve the chamber whenever.
• With these promises and threats, Italian Deputies voted to grant M the powers he wanted for a year.

Question 35

What was the Fascist militia?

Answer 35

• The squadristi played a vital role in M’s rise to power so he needed to keep their support but also keep them under control.
• Created the Fascist Militia (MSVN) in 1923. It consisted of 300,000 black shirts who were paid directly by the state.
• M was head of the organisation so could control them more easily. Authority of the Ras was weakened by new commanders, and more than 200 were expelled.
• Provided employment to Fascists around the country. Had no political power, but served to strengthen Mussolini’s control over the movement.

Question 36

What was the Fascist Grand Council?

Answer 36

• Created by M in 1922 to reassure leading Fascists of their significance. They would meet to discuss political issues.
• M could exert control over leading members.
• It was designed to discuss policy before it was sent to the cabinet and parliament for approval. Meant that new policy was created by the fascists, not parliament.

Question 37

What was the growth in membership for the PNF after M became Prime Minister?

Answer 37

• Grew from 300,000 in 1922 to 783,000 by the end of 1923.
• This helped to decline radical elements of the movement who might have opposed M’s policy of normalisation.
• New members weren’t necessarily believers, but wanted the patronage the PNF could offer.
• The Nationalists merged with the PNF in 1923 which brought more conservative and upper class members.

Question 38

What did the Acerbo Law state?

Answer 38

• Passed in 1923, Mussolini sought to end the system of proportional representation and give himself more control over Italian politics.
• Elections would be organised in the same way, with parties producing lists of constituency candidates.
• Party with the most votes would be allocated two thirds of the seats, as long as they had 25% of the vote.
• The remaining third would be allocated to other parties in proportion to the votes they had gained.

Question 39

Who supported the Acerbo Law and why?

Answer 39

• Gained support from the Liberals as they thought it would end the political instability in Italy. It also undermined support for the Socialists who struggled to join coalitions.
• Mussolini threatened to close the CoD if it was not passed, and arranged for black shirts to be in the chamber to intimidate politicians.
• Mussolini’s decision to pass laws favourable to the Catholic Church meant that the Pope pressurised the Popolari to support the proposals.
• Only the Socialists and Communists opposed the Law.

Question 40

What were the result of the 1924 elections?

Answer 40

• The Fascists joined forces with the right wing Liberals such as Salandra. They gained 66% of the vote and the number of Fascist MPs increased from 35 to 374.
• Meant that M had a clear majority in the CoD achieved via a mixture of genuine popularity, violence, intimidation and ballot rigging.
• M did not have total power, however, as laws still had to be approved by Parliament, there were still opposition groups and the King could still remove him.

Question 41

What was the Matteoti Crisis?

Answer 41

• In 1924, Matteotti presented evidence to Parliament that the Fascists had used violence and terror to influence the elections.
• He called for an annulment of the elections. 11 days after this Matteoti was kidnapped by Fascists and stabbed to death. This created widespread criticism of the Fascsists.
• M denied any knowledge about it, but evidence emerged linking him with the murder. Several Fascists were arrested, and some MPs formed a rival parliament. They hoped to removed M, but the King refused fearing socialism.
• M survived this.

Question 42

How did Mussolini secure his position further after the Matteotti crisis?

Answer 42

• Press censorship was introduced in 1924.
• All meetings by opposition groups or parties were banned in 1924.

Question 43

What was the Fascist pressure on Mussolini after the 1924 elections?

Answer 43

• In late 1924, 33 leading Fascists demanded to M that he established a dictatorship. They threatened to withdraw if he did not agree.
• In 1925, M announced to parliament that he would set up a dictatorship within 48 hours.

Question 44

How did the Fascists control the press in 1925?

Answer 44

• Tightened press censorship and newspaper owners were pressured to dismiss editors who had been critical of the Fascists.
• After 1925, all journalists had to have their names on an official register before they could seek employment. It gave the Fascists greater control over new stories in Italy.

Question 45

How did Mussolini ban political parties?

Answer 45

• In 1925, the Pope withdrew support for the Popolari, which disintegrated.
• The deputies that walked out after the Matteotti murder were not allowed to return, and in 1925 M passed a law that strengthened the power of central government.
• This banned all political opposition groups and non-Fascist trade unions. Freedom of association, the freedom to meet together, especially in political groups - was ended in 1926.

Question 46

What were the constitutional amendments made in 1925-26?

Answer 46

• Liberal state was destroyed.
• All opposition parties were formally banned.
• Locally elected mayors and councils were replaced by officials appointed by the government.
• A new secret police, the OVRA, was established, and additional courts were set up to try political offences.
• M would be known as Il Duce (the leader) rather than Prime Minister. M would no longer be responsible to parliament, and could only be dismissed by the King.
• In Jan 1926, M was given the power to rule by decree. In that month, 20,000 decrees were issued.