The Fascist State 1925-40

Question 1

What were the educational policies from 1929?

Answer 1

• Focused on obedience and indoctrination rather than standard of education.
• A portrait of M hung in every classroom.
• Primary school children were taught to read by using books with Fascist cartoons and quotations by M. Also taught unquestioning obedience.
• From 1928, there was only one authorised textbook, focusing on Italian achievements in history and literature.
• Emphasis on sport and exercise as well as religious.
• From 1931, all teachers had to take a loyalty oath to the regime. In 1933, all teachers were required to be members of the PNF.

Question 2

What was the problem with Fascism in universities?

Answer 2

• Professors and lecturers were harder to dismiss than teachers and more resistant to threats.
• Some took the loyalty oath and joined the PNY as a formality, and a few refused.

Question 3

What were the benefits of joining the University Fascist Youth?

Answer 3

• Use of sport facilities.
• Half-price admission to entertainment.
• Partial exemption from military service.
• Enhanced career prospects.
• Students were expected to join this.

Question 4

What were the Fascist youth movements?

Answer 4

• Set up in 1926, for children and teenagers outside of school. Opera Nazionale Balilla, known as ONB.
• Children were exposed to Fascist propaganda but also took part in a wide range of activities. Girls were given more feminine activities so they could become good Fascist wives.
• They offered free sport facilities, holidays at the beach for urban children and scholarships for the gifted.
• They faced opposition from rival organisations run by the Catholic Church. They were eventually banned, after which membership rapidly rose.

Question 5

What was the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND)?

Answer 5

• A way for M to attract the adult population to Fascism.
• Offered subsidised activities such as arts, music, theatre, and poetry. There were summer camps and sports facilities, as well as the provision of clothing for poorer people.
• Membership grew rapidly. Nearly every town had its own Dopolavoro clubhouse by the mid-1930s.
• It allowed the Fascists to manipulate public opinion and promote propaganda in a more subtle way.

Question 6

What was the press control and censorship in the Fascist State?

Answer 6

• As a former journalist, M knew how effective it could be.
• 1925, only registered journalists could publish. Editors who kept their jobs after 1925 knew the severe consequences of opposition messages.
• Initially controlled by M’s press office which later expnaded into the Ministry of Propaganda in 1935. Introduced strict censorship of newspapers, radio, film, theatre and foreign publications.

Question 7

How did the Fascists use cinema to promote their message?

Answer 7

• Built a school of cinematography in 1935.
• In 1934, the General Directorate of Cinema was created, which regulated the cinema and brought film in line with Fascist ideology.
• Took over Italy’s Hollywood in 1938 and after this made several fascist films. These glorified the regime and its successes.

Question 8

How did the Fascists use radio to promote their message?

Answer 8

• This was important as it could be received in rural and remote areas and did not require literacy.
• A special radio agency (the ERR) was set up in 1933 and was led by the PNF secretary.
• M expanded Italian radio during WW2 and installed more than 2 million radio sets in marketplaces, schools, factories and military facilities.
• Reached a large number of people. M’s major speeches were broadcast live and played via loudspeakers.

Question 9

What is the cult of Il Duce?

Answer 9

• An attempt by the Fascists to present M as a heroic, ideal leader.
• The media portrayed him as a man of energy and action. The perfect role model for Italian men. Aspects that were bad were never mentioned.
• Convinced many people that there was no real alternative to M, and some became fervent fans. Others were more skeptical, but did not speak out due to fear.
• Hard to know how genuine people’s enthusiasm was for the cult of the Il Duce.

Question 10

What was the influence of Fascist culture?

Answer 10

• Used for propaganda purposes.
• In 1926, the National Fascist Culture Institute was established to spread Fascist culture to the masses.
• Based on traditions of a more glorious past.
• In art this meant looking at Rome for inspiration or experimenting with modernist and abstract styles. Portrayed Italy as a great nation.
• Architecture was also used to show how powerful the regime was, used vast modernist buildings.
• The regime was not successful at creating a Fascist literacy intelligentsia, as many writers remained disengaged from fascism.

Question 11

What was the role of the security services?

Answer 11

• Threaten, imprison and punish political opponents.
• Increase in repression after attempted assassination on M in 1926.
• Special Tribunal set up in 1926 judged those who were a danger of the state. 13,547 cases, 5,155 found guilty and 49 sentenced to death.
• The OVRA was set up in 1927. A secret police force that had extensive powers.
• The militia also helped to create a climate of repression.
• Set up prisons to house political opponents. 10,000 people sent there during the Fascist regime. Not on the same level as Nazi concentration camps.

Question 12

What was Italian Fascism’s stance on anti-Semitism before 1937?

Answer 12

• Did not have the same emphasis on it as Nazi Germany.
• In 1937, Foreign secretary, Count Galeazzo Ciano, did not support anti-Semitic policies and the regime even allowed 3,000 German Jews to enter the country as refugees.

Question 13

What was the development of Italian racial laws in 1938?

Answer 13

• July 1938, the regime supported a document which argued that Jews were not part of the Italian race.
• August 1938, all foreign-born Jews were banned from state schools.
• Sep 1938, all Jews were banned from state schools. Jews were banned from teaching in state schools, separate school were established.
• Oct, Jews excluded from the PNF. Jews forbidden from owning large companies or landed estates.
• Nov, Jews not allowed to marry non-Jews. Jews excluded from the military and banking. Foreign Jews were expelled.

Question 14

How effectively were the anti-Semitic laws applied in Italy?

Answer 14

• Many gov and Fascist officials did not apply the laws, either for religious or moral reasons.
• They were unpopular with the majority of Italians, and academics, business elites and the Church spoke out against them. Lost the movement support.
• After 1943, when the Nazis returned M to power, he issued a decree to confiscate all Jewish property and round them up. 9,000 Italian Jews went to Nazi death camps and only 600 survived.

Question 15

What was Mussolini’s relationship like with the monarchy?

Answer 15

• M needed their support as it gave the regime legitimacy.
• The King was not a strong supporter of Fascism but did not oppose it either. He gained titles and lands from Fascist actions abroad. Signed most of M’s decrees.
• The King’s power was reduced under the Fascist state. The King’s command over the army was transferred to M during wartime, and M did not ask the King’s advice on policy.
• Resisted some elements of Fascism, like those relating to the army, and refused to allow the Fascist symbol on the flag. Critical of anti-Semitic laws but still signed them.
• He had largely retired from public life by 1930, although he ordered M’s arrest in 1943.

Question 16

How did Mussolini change the judiciary system?

Answer 16

• Anti-Fascist judges were removed from their posts and replaced with Fascists, meaning that the judiciary was under Mussolini’s control.
• Imprisonment without trial became more frequent and Mussolini sometimes intervened to influence verdicts.
• Apart from the Special Tribunals, however, the system remained unchanged.

Question 17

How did the Civil Service change during the Fascist state?

Answer 17

• M promised to make cuts to the civil service when coming to power. But apart from 1922-24 little changed.
• By 1930, the Civil service was expanding again. In 1935 membership of the PNF was made compulsory for civil servants.
• The number of Civil servants greatly increased in order to offer jobs to Fascists.

Question 18

Did Mussolini attract to the Nationalists?

Answer 18

• Fascism stressed Nationalist themes in order to appeal.
• M’s attempts to increase influence in the Med (Corfu and Fiume) won him the support of Nationalists.
• Involvement in the creation of the Locarno Pact, the Kellogg-Briand Pact and the Lateran Pact won over Nationalists.
• Campaigns in Abyssinia and Albania was also popular.
• M’s emphasis on Italian culture attracted Nationalists.
• Resulted in many Nationalists supporting Fascism until the end of WW2.

Question 19

How did Mussolini try and appeal to the armed forces?

Answer 19

• Expansion of the armed forces.
• Aggressive foreign policy.
• Promoting senior generals.
• Resulted in leading members supporting Fascism.
• Senior positions were given to Fascists, to cement the loyalty of the army to the state.

Question 20

How did Mussolini centralise government?

Answer 20

• Took away parliament’s power to discuss policy, debate and amend proposed legislation.
• Parliament became irrelevant after all opposition parties were banned. It was filled with Fascist supporters who rubber-stamped Fascist laws.
• In 1939, parliament was replaced with the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations.
• M made himself Head of Foreign Affairs, Minister of the Interior and Minister of all the Armed Forces.

Question 21

Was Mussolini’s governmental system effective?

Answer 21

• He did not listen to advice, exploited rivalries in order to strengthen his own position and dismissed talented ministers who questioned him.
• Poorly organised and bad at administration, which undermined his Government’s effectiveness, particularly when he had so much control.
• He was successful in securing and maintaining political power, however, until the fall of Fascism in Italy.

Question 22

How did Mussolini control the PNF?

Answer 22

• Rewarded loyalty and punished those who opposed him.
• Appointed people to positions who were obedient and loyal, which encouraged them to join the PNF to further their own interests.
• Men of ability were given posts where they could not pose a threat, which prevented the emergence of rivals.
• This was made easier by the divisions of the PNF, which meant that M could exert dominance more easily.
• He manipulated different factions by appearing to identify with their interests.

Question 23

How did the regime appeal economically to agricultural groups?

Answer 23

• Gov had close connections with southern landowners, who benefited from the ban on strikes and from the state imposed wage controls as they could pay workers less.
• Landowners were also allowed control of policies such as land reclamation, choosing which land to be reclaimed. This meant that the policy did not have the intended radical effect on farming.

Question 24

How did the regime appeal economically to industrial elites?

Answer 24

• Telephone companies were privatised.
• Private life insurance was reintroduced.
• Taxes on ‘excess’ war profits were reduced or abandoned.
• Large firms and cartels were allowed to expand.
• In 1925, the Vidoni Palace Pact banned all Catholic and Socialist trade unions, leading to the banning of strikes.
• The bargaining rights of independent trade unions were removed.
• During the Depression, the gov helped industry by supporting price fixing and cutting wages.

Question 25

What did finance minister Alberto de Stefani focus on from 1922?

Answer 25

• Tax cuts.
• Pursuing pro-business policies.
• Reducing government intervention in the economy.
• Stimulating investment.
• Reducing public spending
• This resulted in exports increasing and industrial production booming.
• After his removal in 1925, economic policy became dominated by Mussolini.

Question 26

What was the Battle for the Lira?

Answer 26

• In 1927, the lira was revalued at 140 lira to 90 lira to the British pound.
• Tariffs on imports were introduced, designed to protect the lira and the Italian economy.
• Undermined Italian exports but made imports cheaper, which benefitted industries that relied on imports.
• Propaganda focused on persuading people to accept it so M did not lose popularity.

Question 27

What was the Corporate State?

Answer 27

• Workers, employers, and Fascist officials were formed into corporations.
• They were to work together to resolve disputes between workers and management and to improve production.

Question 28

What was the Vidoni Palace Pact?

Answer 28

• Signed between the industrial employers’ association, and the Fascist trade union federation. In 1925.
• Each side recognised each other as the only negotiator of their respective groups - other trade unions were excluded and dissolved after 1926.
• A Labour and Anti-Strike Law of 1926 banned workers from striking, and some professions were banned from being members of trade unions.

Question 29

What was the trade union movement in 1927?

Answer 29

• The industrial employers’ association opposed all trade unions and were determined to retain control.
• In 1927, M broke down the confederation of Fascist trade unions into smaller federations which reduced their influence and boosted the power of employers.

Question 30

Was the Corporate State a success?

Answer 30

• Failed to have a dramatic impact on the economy.
• It was used as propaganda but was effectively useless.
• Businesses ignored the regulations produced.
• Representatives of workers generally sided with the employers.
• Did not result in an economic revolution.

Question 31

What measures did Mussolini take to protect the economy in the Depression?

Answer 31

• In 1931, set up the IMI and in 1933 set up the IRI. They were established to rescue Italian industry and banks.
• The IRI used state finance to buy worthless shares and lent money to industries that could be kept running. Developed more effective management and kept resources efficiently.
• Many small firms were saved from bankruptcy.
• Banking system was more or less state owned.

Question 32

Why did Italy make moves to become autarkic?

Answer 32

• Highly militaristic and nationalist state who aimed to increase it prestige abroad, war was ever more likely.
• The LoN had introduced sanctions on Italy following the Abyssinian War.
• The High Commission of Autarky was established in 1937 but moves towards it had begun ten years earlier.

Question 33

What were the measure taken to achieve autarky?

Answer 33

• The ‘Battle for Grain’.
• Increased currency controls.
• Quotas on foreign imports, favouring domestic goods.
• Production of substitutes for substances not made domestically, e.g. lanital instead of wool.
• Searches for new energy sources that did not mean importing oil or gas.

Question 34

What were the negative effects of autarky?

Answer 34

• Raw materials such as coal, oil and iron were very scarce.
• Wheat imports were cut by the ‘Battle of Grain’ but other food imports increased due to the concentration on wheat.
• Prices increased.
• When WW2 broke out, Italy could not join in due to the shortage of foreign currency which meant she could not import the raw materials to prepare militarily.

Question 35

What was the Battle for Births?

Answer 35

• Launched in 1927, with the goal of increasing the Italian population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950.
• The intention was to build an increasing and youthful population to develop a strong nation.
• Loans were offered to couples who were married, employment made more available to married men with children, a married man with 6 kids did not pay tax.
• High levels of taxation imposed on bachelors for ‘unjustified celibacy’, bachelors were blocked from promotion.

Question 36

Was the Battle for Births a success?

Answer 36

• Despite the actions taken, the marriage rate did not change and the birth rate was in decline until 1936.
• Women still made up 33% of the workforce in 1936, a decline of only 3%.
• Failed to achieve its aims.

Question 37

What was the Battle for Grain?

Answer 37

• Announced in 1925, M promised to make Italy self-sufficient in terms of grain production.
• Targets were set for increasing crop yields and high tariffs were placed on imports.
• Grants were provided to farmers to use modern farming techniques and equipment.
• Resulted in a 50% rise in wheat production, especially in the Po Valley.

Question 38

Was the Battle for Grain a success?

Answer 38

• Italy was not self-sufficient in fertilisers, which were necessary for high yields. When they could not be imported, grain yields fell.
• Valuable export crops such as olives and grapes did not receive the same treatment, so did not match the progress of cereal crops.
• Prices rose and living standards declined.
• By 1933, Italy was still dependent on foreign imports.

Question 39

What was the Battle for Land?

Answer 39

• Agricultural policy focused on land reclamation.
• The Mussolini Law of 1928 promised huge sums of money towards land reclamation projects. Any landowners who resisted would have their land confiscated.
• There would also be new irrigation systems, aqueducts, houses and roads.

Question 40

Was the Battle for Land a success?

Answer 40

• Big success in some regions, like Rome’s Campagna district, and the Pontine where the main barrier to cultivation was drainage.
• However, much land was untouched and the scheme was badly administered.
• The number of poor families resettled on the land was tiny, fewer than 10,000.
• Wages of farmers fell by more than 50% 1926-34 and people continued to leave for the towns.
• This was in direct opposition to the Fascist aims.

Question 41

What were the early policies that helped Mussolini improve relations with the church?

Answer 41

• In 1923, M helped save the nearly bankrupt Bank of Rome which managed the assets of the Catholic Church.
• M granted 3 million lire to help restore damaged churches.
• RE was reinstated in elementary schools.
• M tightened divorce laws and abortion was made virtually impossible.
• M had his children baptised and married his wife in church.
• These improved relations, but tensions remained over the use of violence and his totalitarian aspirations.

Question 42

What were the three points of the Lateran Pacts of 1929?

Answer 42

• The Vatican City was established as an independent state, with the Pope as its head of State. Catholicism would be the sole recognised religion of Italy.
• A financial agreement was made which compensated the Church for the land lost during the process of unification.
• The Concordat was signed, which recognised that Church structures would remain separate and independent. Confirmed that RE was compulsory in education, and teachers and textbooks had to approved by the Church.

Question 43

What were the impacts of the Lateran Pacts?

Answer 43

• Signalled an end to the conflict between the Church and the Italian State which had existed since unification in 1870.
• M also granted the Church the right to censor books, films and newspapers.
• Increased support for M.
• Limited concessions had been made.
• The Pacts brought international prestige.

Question 44

What was clash between Catholic action and Mussolini in the 1930s?

Answer 44

• In 1931, M tried to suppress Catholic Action. The Pope criticised the move in foreign newspapers and the papal newspaper L’Osservatore Romano.
• It was agreed that Catholic Action youth groups would be restricted to religious, educational and recreational activities.
• As part of this, the Pope also emphasised that the Fascists must not persecute Catholic schools.

Question 45

How did Pope Pius XI respond to the anti-Semitic laws 1938-39?

Answer 45

• Urged M not to introduce them in Italy, but M ignored this.
• Pius responded with public demonstrations of the laws, declaring that Italy should not follow them.
• In 1939, Pius had prepared an encyclical letter which condemned racism, andti-Semitism and aggressive German nationalism, but died before it could be published.