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TB9 Flashcards

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The Brain flashcards
1
Q

How do we generate a movement?

A

Motor neurones go from the brain stem into the muscles and this is the fastest route.

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2
Q

What are striated muscles?

A

They are striated due to the protein layout in the muscles and these muscles are a form of skeletal muscle which are connected to a bone at least on one end except in the face.

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3
Q

What are the three main types of muscle and where are they located?

A
  1. Striated muscles - all around the body
  2. Smooth muscle - around the gut, in glands and blood vessels
  3. Cardiac striated muscle - heart (not under voluntary control)
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4
Q

What is the sliding film hypothesis?

A

Striated muscles are made up of myosin and actin proteins and these slide over each other causing a contraction. this electrical activity, generated by the muscles sliding over each other causes calcium to be released, influencing movement.

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5
Q

What is Duchenne Muscular dystrophy?

A

It is caused by abnormality in muscle protein - necessary in structural muscle.

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6
Q

Explain the Final Common Pathway…

A

All muscle output which results in movement results in an action which passes to the spinal cord or brainstem. This is made up of a lower motor neurone and muscle fibre causing a neuromuscular junction. The electrical activity in the lower motor neurone travels down the axon and at the junction, causes acetylcholine to be released. This diffuses across the junction and binds to receptors. This results in an action potential, causing the muscles to contract.

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7
Q

In the Final Common Pathway, what happens if drugs prevent the diffusion of acetylcholine across the junction?

A

A human or animal can become paralysed as cannot generate movements

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8
Q

What is the condition when there is an abnormality in receptors and so muscles become weak as only a few can be activated?

A

Myasthenia Gravis

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9
Q

What are the differences in white and grey matter?

A

White matter = information transmission

Grey matter = information processing

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10
Q

How is a twitch generated? How does a twitch form a movement?

A

A single action potential travelling down an alpha motor neurone leads to a single muscle twitch. If a train of action potentials arrive within 10-100ms of each other, this gives rise to prolonged contractions causing a movement - these are known as tetanic contractions.

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11
Q

When making a movement, what is recruitment?

A

The number of fibres that are activated at the same time. Although single neurones are ‘all or nothing’, the amount of muscle contractions can be graded by how much calcium is required.

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12
Q

What are the fastest conductors within the body?

A

Lower motor neurones

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13
Q

When are lower motor neurones damaged? What happens if they are damaged?

A

In motorneurone disease, trauma, when a nerve is cut, polio or alcohol.
Damage leads to lower motor neurone syndrome such as paralysis, muscle wasting and fascilcuation (spontaneous contraction - lots of acetylcholine is released in attempt to restore the muscle)

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14
Q

What are the motor neurones main function?

A

Muscle control, muscle generation and sustaining the muscle for activation.

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15
Q

What neurones pass information to the motor neurones?

A
  1. upper motor neurones coming from the cortex (voluntary)
  2. sensory neurones (reflex)
  3. neurones that control posture - comes from brain stem.
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16
Q

What is the fastest route from brain to muscle?

A

Upper motor neurone to lower motor neurone.

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17
Q

What is axon decussation?

A

When the neurones cross over in the spinal cord.

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18
Q

What is motor homunculus?

A

This is the way things are mapped in the brain, the cortex contains everything from the neck downwards and everything above the neck is controlled by the brainstem.

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19
Q

How is the face mapped within the cortex?

A

The lower motor neurone controls one side of the face but the upper face and lower face is controlled from different regions - the forehead is controlled by both hemispheres.

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20
Q

What two tracts are essential in posture?

A

The vestibulospinal tract and retriculospinal tracts.

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21
Q

What is readiness potential?

A

This is when we are initiating movement, the brain knows to make the movement sometimes at least a second before the movement is initiated.

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22
Q

What is a skill?

A

A movement acquired through practice

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23
Q

Do brain areas grow to accommodate for the need for more sensory areas?

A

No, the brain does not grow, other areas just accommodate as that area is in high demand.

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24
Q

What condition does not have the ability to start and stop movements?

A

Parkinson’s disease

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25
Q

What other disorders affect the timing of movements?

A

Athetosis, chorea and hemibasllismus

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26
Q

What is Chorea?

A

Rithing, dance-like movements

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27
Q

What part of the brain is crucial in timing and selection of movements?

A

Basal ganglia

28
Q

What can be used as Parkinson’s disease treatment?

A

Stimulation of he thalamus, especially the sub thalamic nucleus

29
Q

What are the two pathways in timing movements?

A

Direct and indirect - LOOK AT NOTES

30
Q

Name the two dopamine transmitters and state their function and which pathway they favour.

A

D1 receptors in the basal ganglia are excited by dopamine favouring the direct pathway.
D2 receptors in the basal ganglia are inhibited by dopamine, favouring the indirect pathway

31
Q

In Parkinson’s disease, what part of the pathway goes wrong?

A

There is a lack of dopamine which increases activity in the direct pathway. This leads to toxic inhibition of the thalamus and so information goes back into the thalamus - preventing control of movements

32
Q

In Huntington’s disease, what part of the pathway goes wrong?

A

There is degeneration of the striatum and so inhibition of the thalamus - leading to spontaneous movements

33
Q

In hemiballismus, what part of the pathway goes wrong?

A

Unilateral damage to sub thalamic nucleus which leads to unwanted movements

34
Q

What is the basal ganglia loop? What is it important for?

A

Cortex - basal ganglia - thalamus - cortex

Important in learning and remembering a specific movement

35
Q

What condition results from damage to the cerebellum? What does this condition affect?

A

This causes cerebella disease and causes intention movements to be affected and cognitive functions

36
Q

Which areas does the cerebellum receive information from?

A

motor cortex, spinal cord and vestibular nucleus

37
Q

What is executive control and which brain area is responsible for it?

A

Executive control is acting on behaviour plans and is controlled by the basal ganglia.

38
Q

When the prefrontal cortex is damaged, what affect does it have on behaviour?

A

May cause problems using past experience to guide behaviour which may result in automatic and inappropriate behaviour.

39
Q

What is dorsolateral prefrontal syndrome?

A

Lateral damage in humans may result in loss of interest in the world and little spontaneity, although motor abilities are spared.

40
Q

What is the function of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex?

A

It is involved in behaviour initiation and selection and behavioural preparation.

41
Q

What is the function of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex?

A

Important for obeying rules of behaviour.

42
Q

What happens if the cortisol connections in the frontal lobe are removed or the whole frontal lobe (Moniz)?

A

Makes people more automatic - no inhibition of behaviour.

43
Q

What is the cingulate’s function?

A

It i involved in the process of engaging and disengaging executive control systems.

44
Q

What are normative theories when making decisions?

A

Based on probabilities and the expected values although sometimes the probability os overrided and utility is used to make the decision.

45
Q

What is the prospect theory when making a decision?

A

This is when people have an idea of what the outcome is even though the probabilities and rewards are also known. This theory predicts what people will do. This theory suggests it is not associated with probability or utility. All about availability. representativeness and anchoring.

46
Q

What is the framing effect?

A

How an answer to a problem is presented may affect the solution chosen.

47
Q

What is the game theory?

A

It is the same as a prospect theory but involves many other people - means we make a decision based on someone else.

48
Q

What neurotransmitter is necessary in reward and punishment and where is it released from?

A

Dopamine released from the substantial nigra.

49
Q

What are the mesolimbic and mesocorticol regions necessary for?

A

Mesolimbic = limbic system
Mesocorticol = cortex
Both are important in reward and punishment.

50
Q

Not including dopamine, what other substance affects the reward system?

A

Drugs, such as cocaine.

51
Q

What are the main motor problems associated with Parkinson’s disease

A

Rest tremor, repetitive actions, walking and lack of facial expressions

52
Q

What treatment is used for Parkinson’ s disease?

A

Deep brain stimulation

53
Q

What is levy’s body dementia?

A

This is the second most common form of dementia. Impairments in timing and readout information which generalises to memory and other aspects of cognition.

54
Q

What happens if the dopaminergic circuits are impaired?

A

Hyper or hypokinesis

55
Q

What results from an imbalance in the dopamine system?

A

Dementia vs hallucinations

56
Q

What is the effect of lower motor neurone damage?

A

Fibrillication

57
Q

Where does the primary motor cortex send information to?

A

It has direct connections to the skeletal muscle.

58
Q

What neurone modulates reflex strength?

A

Upper motor neurone

59
Q

When does a upper motor neurone degenerate?

A

Stroke which affects the motor cortex.

60
Q

When is the cerebellum most highly activated?

A

In the earliest stage of learning a new skill

61
Q

What is a stretch reflex?

A

Activates when there is an increase in the length of a muscle generated by a reflex.

62
Q

When does default mode network occur?

A

It occurs before executive control mechanisms are activated and therefore, this system is common in children.

63
Q

When competing the Wisconsin Sorting Task, what does preservation mean?

A

It means that theres an inability to inhibit a previous rule.

64
Q

Who first investigated probability?

A

Blaise Pascal.

65
Q

How do VTA neurones fire?

A

They show adaptive firing patterns based on the association of neutral stimuli and rewards.

Brain and Behaviour (3 decks)

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