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Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Visual Cues

A

Perceptually organize by taking into account
1. Depth
2. Form
3. Motion
4. Constancy

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2
Q

Retinal disparity

A

Eyes are apart giving humans slightly different views of objects (depth)

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3
Q

Convergence

A

Depth and how eyeballs are turned
Far away: eye muscles relaxed
Close: eye muscles contract

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4
Q

Binocular cues

A

How humans recieve cues due to having two eyes

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5
Q

Monocular cues

A

Cues humans recieve without needing two eyes

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6
Q

Relative size

A
  • Can infer with an eye
  • Closer an object is, the bigger it is
  • Gives idea of form
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7
Q

Interposition

A

Perception that one object is in front of another is closer

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8
Q

Relative height

A

Things that are higher appear further then thing that are closer (think mountains)

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9
Q

Shading & Contour

A

Using light and shadows to percieve depth/contours
(craters)

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10
Q

Motion parallax

A

Things farther away move slower
Closer moves faster

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11
Q

Constancy

A

Perception of object doesn’t change even if image cast on retina is different

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12
Q

Size Constancy

A

Perception of somethings size remains constant despite changing distance

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13
Q

Shape Constancy

A

Perception that a changing shape still maintains the same shape
(ex: a door closed is rectangle and still appears rectangle when being opened)

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14
Q

Color Constancy

A

Despite lighting change (which change color on retina) we understand color is same

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15
Q

Sensory Adaptation

A

Senses are adaptable and can can their sensitivity to stimuli

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16
Q

Hearing Adaptation

A

Inner Ear Muscle
Higher noise: muscle contracts (protects ear drum)

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17
Q

Proprioception

A

Sense of position/balance of the body in space

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18
Q

Down regulation

A

Light adaptation
When bright, pupils constrict
Desensitization of rods and cones

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19
Q

Up Regulation

A

Dark adaptation
When dark, pupils dilate
Rods and cones synthesize

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20
Q

Difference Threshold & Weber’s Law

A

Just Notable Difference (JND): Threshold when you notice a change in sensation

∆JND / I (Initial Intensity) = k (constant)
Linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity

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21
Q

Absolute threshold of Sensation

A

Minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect it 50% of the time

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22
Q

Subliminal Stimuli

A

Stimuli below absolute threshold of sensation

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23
Q

Intensity

A

How quickly neurons fire to notice
Slow: low intensity
Fast: high intensity

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24
Q

Non-adapting

A

Neuron constitency fires at a constant rate

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25
Q

Slow-adapting

A

Neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and slowly reduces after some time

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26
Q

Fast-adapting

A

Neuron fires when stimulis starts then stops firing

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27
Q

Somatosensation

A
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28
Q

Vestibular System

A

Balance and spatial orientation
* Comes from inner ears (semicircular canals) and limbs

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29
Q

Endolymph

A

Fluid in canals
* When we rotate fluid moves in semicircular canals
* Help detect what direction head is moving in
* How fast fluid moves helps determine strength of rotation

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30
Q

Otolithic Organs

A

Utricle and Saccule
* Help detect linear acceleration and head positioning
* Work well due to gravity and buoyancy
* Contribute to dizziness and vertigo

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31
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

How we make decisions under uncertainty
At what point we can detect a signal

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32
Q

Signal Detection Options

A

Hit > miss (when strong signal)
Miss > hit (weak signal)

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33
Q

Conservative Strategy

A

Always say no unless 100% certain (might get some misses)

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34
Q

Liberal Strategy

A

Always says yes even if get false alarms

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35
Q

Bottom up Processing

A

Stimulis influences our perception
* No preconcieved notions
* Data driven
* Inductive reasoning

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36
Q

Top down Processing

A

Background knowledge influences perception
* Theory driven
* Perception influenced by expectation
* Deductive reasoning

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37
Q

Similarity

A

Items similar to one another are grouped together by brain

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38
Q

Pragnanz

A

Reality organized reduced to simplest form possible
Ex: Olympic rings seen as 5 rings and not complex shape

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39
Q

Proximity

A

Objects that are closer together are grouped together compared to objects that are farther

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40
Q

Continuity

A

Lines are seen as following the smoothest path

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41
Q

Closure

A

Objects grouped together are seen as whole and mind fills in missing information

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42
Q

Symmetry

A

Mind percieves objects as symmetrical and forming around center point

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43
Q

Law of common fate

A

Elements moving together are percieved as a group

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44
Q

Law of Past Experiences

A

In some cases visual stimulis are categorized according to past experiences

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45
Q

Contextual Effects

A

Influence of environmental factors (context) on perception

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46
Q

Conjunctiva

A

Thin layer of cells that line inside of eyelids from eye

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47
Q

Cornea

A

Transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue
* Starts to bend light
* First part of eye light hits

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48
Q

Anterior chamber

A

Space filled with aqueous humour that provides pressure to keep shape of eyeball

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49
Q

Pupil

A

Opening in middle of iris that determines amount of light allowed in to eye
* Size can change based on iris relaxing/contracting

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50
Q

Iris

A

Gives eye its color
Muscle that controls the size of the pupil

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51
Q

Lens

A

Bends light so it goes to the back of the eyeball
* Focuses on fovea of retina
* Changes shape using suspensory ligaments

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52
Q

Ciliary Body

A

Made up of suspensory ligament and ciliary muscle
* Secretes acqueous humor

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53
Q

Posterior Chamber

A

Area behind iris to back of lens
* Filled with acqueous humor

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54
Q

Vitreous Chamber

A

Vitreous humor (gelly like substance) provides pressure and nutrients for the eyeball

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55
Q

Retina

A

Back area of eye (filled with photoreceptors) where light is converted from physical waveform to electrochemical impulse that brain can interpret

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56
Q

Macula

A

Part of retina rich in primarily cones with some rods

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57
Q

Fovea

A

Part of macula with only cones

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58
Q

Cones

A

Detect color (mainly red, than green, least blue) and detail (some light)
* Contain photopsin (if light hits will trigger phototransduction cascade)
* Concentrated in fovea
* Fast recovery time (Doesn’t take long to adjust to changes in color)

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59
Q

Rods

A
  • Detect light
  • Night vision
  • A lot more sensitive to light than cones
  • Found mainly in periphery (less direct light)
  • Contain rhodopsin (if light hits will trigger phototransduction cascade)
  • Slow recovery time (takes a while to adjust to dark)
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60
Q

Choroid

A

Network of blood vessels that help nourish retina
* Black in humans
* Animals with night vision have non-black choroids

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61
Q

Sclera

A

Thick fibrous tissues that covers the posterior of the eye (whites)
* Attachment point for muscles
* Extra layer of protection and structure
* Lined with conjunctiva

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62
Q

Transmission

A

Electrical activation of one neuron by another

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63
Q

Perception

A

Conscious sensory experience of neutral processing

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64
Q

Processing

A

Neutral transformation of multiple neural signals into perception

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65
Q

Transduction

A

Occurs when energy is transformed from one form to another
(ex: light to electrical in eyes)

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66
Q

Sensation

A

Physical stimulus converted in to neural impulse

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67
Q

Photo Transduction Cascade

A

Light hits rods > rods turn off > bipolar cells turn on > retinal ganglion cells turn on > optic nerve > brain

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68
Q

Trichromatic Theory of Color

A

You have cones that are receptive to 3 colors (red, green, and blue) that combine to form colors we see

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69
Q

Opponent Process Theory of Color

A

You have cones that are receptive to 4 colors (red, green, blue, and YELLOW)
Red and green cones oppose each other as do black and white
Only one color can dominate at a time

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70
Q

Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Light

A
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71
Q

Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Dark

A
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72
Q

Photopic Vision

A

Vision at high light levels

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73
Q

Mesopic Vision

A

Vision at dawn/dusk involving rods and cones

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74
Q

Scotopic Vision

A

Vision at very low levels of light

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75
Q

Photoreceptor

A

Specialized nerve that can take light and convert to neural impulse

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76
Q

Blind Spot

A

Where optic nerve connects to retina
* No rods/conesf

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77
Q

Visual Field Processing

A

Ray of light from left visual field hits **nasal ** side of left eye and temporal side of right eye

Ray of light from right visual field hits nasal side of right eye and temporal side of left eye

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78
Q

Optic chiasm

A

Where each electric signal to the brain from each eye converges
* Axons leading from temporal side DON’T cross here

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79
Q

Feature detection

A

When looking at an object you need to break it down into component features to make sense of it
1. Color
* Cones
* Trichromatic Theory
* Something reflects red > red light hits red cone > fire axon potential > brain sees red
2. Form
* Cones
* Parvocellular Pathway: Good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shapes) and color, bad at temporal (motion)
3. Motion
* Rods
* Magnocellular Pathway: High temporal resolution (time and movement), bad spatial resolution (no color)

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80
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time

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81
Q

Audition

A

Sense of sound
Need…
1. Pressurized sound wave (stimuli)
2. Hair cell (receptor, found in cochlea)

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82
Q

Wavelength

A

How close peaks (of a soundwave) are
Smaller wavelength = greater frequency
Higher wavelength = smaller frequency (travel farther, penetrate deeper in to ear)

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83
Q

External/Outer Ear

A
  1. Pinna
  2. Auditory Canal/External Auditory Meatus
  3. Tympanic Membrane/Eardrum
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84
Q

Middle Ear

A

Three osicles (bones)
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Stapes (stirrup)
* Moves back and forth at same frequency as stimulis
* Pushes elliptical window back and forth

Three smallest bones in the body

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85
Q

Inner Ear

A
  1. Cochlea
    * Round structure lined with hair cells
  2. Semicircular canals
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86
Q

Cochlea

A

Fluid inside cochlea is pushed around and comes back around (cochlea is spiraled)
Organ of Corti divides cochlea in two

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87
Q

Organ of Corti

A
  1. Upper Membrane
    * Cilia are called the hair bundle and made of little filaments (one filament is a kinocilium)
  2. Lower Membrane
    and little hair cells

As fluid moves in cochlea, causes hair cells to move back and forth

Hair moves activates spiral ganglion cell which activates auditory nerve

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88
Q

Basilar Tuning

A

Varying hair cells in cochlea that allow the brain to distinguish

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89
Q

Primary Auditory Cortex

A

Part of temporal lobe
Time Ticking - Temporal Lobe
* Recieves all information from cochlea

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90
Q

Cochlear Implants

A

Surgery that tries to restore some hearing to people with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (nerve deafness)

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91
Q

Sensory Adaptation

A

Change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus
* Down regulation of a sensory receptor

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92
Q

Amplification

A

Opposite of sensory adaptation
* Up regulation

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93
Q

Somatosensory Homunculus

A

Map of your body in your brain
* Information all comes to the sensory strip
* In sensory cortex (cortex/parietal lobe)

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94
Q

Proprioception

A

Sense of balance/position
* Sensors (tiny little sensors) located in muscles send signals that go up spinal choard and brain
* Can tell how contracted/relaxed
* More cognitive

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95
Q

Kinaesthesia

A

Movement of the body
* More behavioral

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96
Q

Nociception

A

Ability to sense pain
* SLOW

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97
Q

Thermoception

A

Ability to sense temperature
* SLOW
* Use TrypV1 receptor
* Conformational change: change in physical structure in pain

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98
Q

3 Types of Nerve Fibers

A
  1. A-beta fibres:
    * Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin
    * Less resistance, high conductance
  2. A-delta fibres:
    * Smaller diameter, less myelin
  3. C fibres:
    * Small diamter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)

Fastest to slowest alphabetical A-B, A-D, C

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99
Q

Gate Control Theory of Olfaction

A

Theory of the process of nociception
* Non painful input closes the gates to painful input, which prevents pain from traveling to the central nervous system

Stimulis by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain

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100
Q

Pheromone

A

Chemical signal released by 1 member of species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response
* Important in animals (insects)
* Mating, fighting, communication

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101
Q

Amygdala

A
  • Emotion, agression, mating
  • In temporal lobe
  • Memory, decision making, emotional reactions
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102
Q

Vomeronasal System

A
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103
Q

Ipsilateral

A

Occuring on same side of body
* Smell (olfactoin) and taste (gustation)
* Doesn’t synapse on to thalamus

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104
Q

Contralateral Control

A

Left brain controls right body and right brain controls left body
* Affecting/crossing over opposite side of brain
* Vision, hearing, touch

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105
Q

Labeled-line Theory of Olfaction

A

Each receptor would respond to specific stumuli and is directly linked to brain

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106
Q

Vibrational Theory of Olfaction

A

Vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor

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107
Q

Steric/Shape Theory of Olfaction

A

Odor fits in to receptors similar to lock-and-key

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108
Q

Anosmia

A

Inability to smell
aNOSEmia

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109
Q

Olfaction Pathway

A

Olfactory bulb > amygdala > piriform cortex > orbitofrontal cortex

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110
Q

5 Tastes

A
  1. Bitter
  2. Salty
  3. Sweet
  4. Sour
  5. Umami (ability to taste glutamate)

Sweet, Umami, and Bitter cells rely on GPCR receptors
Sour and salty rely on ion channels (think salt SOdium SOur salty)

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111
Q

Tastebuds

A
  • Concentrated anteriorly (front of tongue)
  • Can be:
    1. Fungiform (anterior) papillae: Mushroom-shaped structures located on tip and sides of tongue
    2. Foliate (side) papillae: Folded structures at back of tongue on both sides
    3. Circumvallate (back) papillae: Flat mound structures found at back of tongue

Filiform papillae: don’t contain taste buds and exist all over tongue
Only filiform papillae at center of tongue

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112
Q

Tastant

A

Substance that stimulates sense of taste

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113
Q

Gustducin

A

Protein associated with sensation of taste

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114
Q

Labelled Lines Model

A
  • Each taste bud receptor has 5 axons all that send seperate taste information to different parts of gustatory cortex
  • Seperate to brain
  • All synpase on different parts of gustatory cortex
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115
Q

Consciousness

A
  • Awareness of our self and environment
  • Different levels of awareness
  • Natural or induced by other factors (drugs, mental efforts)
  • Alertness > Sleep
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116
Q

Alertness

A
  • Aware/awake of who you are, what’s going on in environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, code information to your memory
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117
Q

Daydreaming

A

Feel relaxed, not as focused on being alert, light meditatoin (self-induced)

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118
Q

Drowsiness

A

Just before falling asleep/after waking up
* Self induced through deep meditation

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119
Q

Electroencephalograms (EEGs)

A
  • Measures brainwaves
  • Each wave oscillates at different frequencies and associated with different states of consciousness
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120
Q

Beta

A
  • 12 - 30 Hz
  • Associated with awake/concentration
  • If alert for too long beta levels get high and experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness
  • Constant awakened alterness
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121
Q

Alpha

A
  • 8 - 13 Hz
  • Daydreaming state
  • Disappear in drowsiness but reappear in deep sleep
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122
Q

Theta

A
  • 4 - 7 Hz
  • Drowsiness
  • Right after you fall asleep
  • When sleeping lightly
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123
Q

Delta

A
  • 0.5 - 3 Hz
  • Deep sleep
  • Coma
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124
Q

Sleep Stages

A

4 main stages that occur in 90 minute cycles

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125
Q

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) Sleep

A

N1
N2
N3

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126
Q

N1

A
  • Theta waves
  • Hypnagonic Hallucinations: hearing/seeing things that aren’t there
  • Tetris effect: seeing images of what you have last seen in your sleep, feeling like you’re on water even if land after being on boat all day
  • Hypnic jerks: feeling of falling/muscle twitches experienced as falling asleep
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127
Q

N2

A
  • Deeper sleep
  • Harder to awaken
  • Theta waves, sleep spindles, K-complexes
  • Sleep spindles: burst of rapid brain activity, help maintain tranquil sleep, ability to sleep through loud noises
  • K-complexes: supress cortical arousal, keep asleep, help sleep-based memory consolidation, make occur by gently touching someone who’s asleep
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128
Q

N3

A
  • Slow wave sleep
  • Very difficult to awaken
  • Delta waves
  • Sleep walking/talking
  • Declarative memory consolidation
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129
Q

N3

A
  • Slow wave sleep
  • Very difficult to awaken
  • Delta waves
  • Sleep walking/talking
  • Declarative memory consolidation
130
Q

Rapid-eye movement (REM) stage

A
  • Eyes move rapidly beneath eyelids but other muscles are paralyzed
  • Most dreams occur
  • Memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories
  • Alpha, beta, dyssynchronous waves
  • Waking up during allows you to remember dreams
  • BATS-drink blood beta, alpha, theta, sleep spindle/k-complex, delta, beta
131
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

Regular body rhythms across 24 hour period
* Controlled by melatonin (produced in pineal gland)
* Controls body temp/sleep cycle
* Changes as you age

132
Q

Dreaming

A
  • During REM sleep (remembering)
  • Brainwaves look like awake
  • Activity in prefrontal cortex during REM is decreased (logic part of brain)
133
Q

Sigmund Freud Dream Theory

A

Dreams are unconcious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted
Manifest content: what actually happened, literal meaning
Latent content: hidden meaning
* Little science proof

134
Q

Evolutionary Biology Dream Theory

A

Threat simulation to prepare for real world
* Problem Solving
* No purpose

135
Q

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

A

Brain gets lots of neural impulses to brain stem, that are sometimes interpreted by frontal cortex
brain finding meaning from random activity

136
Q

Insomnia

A

Persistent trouble falling asleep/staying asleep

137
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Can’t help from falling asleep

138
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Stop breathing while sleeping

139
Q

Sleep Walking/Talking

A
  • Mostly genetic and harmless
  • Occurs mainly in children
140
Q

Hypnotism

A

Someone becomes succeptible to suggestion if they wanted to in relaxed state
* Could be used to retrieve memories but could create false memories
Dissociation Theory: Extreme form of divided consciousness
Social Influence Theory: People do/report what’s expected of them, like actors

141
Q

Meditation

A

Training people to self regulate attention and awareness
Light meditation: more alpha waves
Deep meditation: more theta waves

142
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A

Drugs that alter consciousness/perception
4 Categories:
1. Depressants
2. Stimulants
3. Hallucinogens
4. Opiates/Opioids

143
Q

Alcohol

A
  • Most popular
  • Decreased cognitive control
  • Lack coordination, slurred speech
  • Think slowly
  • Disrupt REM sleep and forming memories
144
Q

Barbiturates

A
  • Used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety
  • Anesthesia or anticonvulsant
  • Not often prescribed because has bad side effects
145
Q

Benzodiazepines

A
  • Most commonly prescribed
  • Sleep aids/anti anxiety/anti seizure
  • Enhance brain’s response to GABA
  • Short (sleep), intermediate (sleep), or long-acting (anxiety)
146
Q

Depressants

A

Lower body’s basic functions and neural activity
* Decrease HR, decrease BP
* Vasodilate at low, vasoconstrictor at high
* Three categories: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines

147
Q

Stimulants

A

Drugs that excite CNS, increase HR/BP, more alert/energetic
* Vasodilate
* Similar effect to stress, increased glucose metabolism in brain
* Have opposite affect of stimulants but can’t be used to reverse their effects
* Ex: Caffeine, amphetamines (Adderall), meth, MDMA (stimulant/hallucinogen)

148
Q

Hallucinogens (psychedelics)

A
  • Distorted perceptions/hallucinations (seeing what’s not there)
  • Highlighted sensations
  • Can give energy/calm down
  • Emotional responses
  • Ex: PCP, LSD, peyote
  • Dilation of pupils (mydriasis)
149
Q

Opiates (Natual)/Opioids (Synthetic)

A
  • Similar effect as depressants but function differently
  • Analgesic (reduces perception of pain)
  • Act at body’s receptor sites for endorphins
  • Lead to euphoria
  • Vasodilator and pul constrictor
  • Ex: heroine, codeine, moprhine, oxycodone
150
Q

Cannibis (Marijuana)

A
  • Mix of all
  • Can be hallucinogen/depressant/stimulant
  • Can be present in blood for up to 3 months
  • Tolerance can increase amount needed
151
Q

Caffeine

A
  • Inhibits adenosine receptors
  • Can disrupt sleep
  • Increases energy
  • Withdrawal: Irritability, difficulty concentrating, depression
152
Q

Nicotine

A
  • Increase HR/BP
  • Disrupts sleep
  • Supresses appetite
  • High levels: muscles relax and release stress reducing neurotransmitters
  • Withdrawal: anxiety, insomnia, irritability
153
Q

Cocaine

A
  • Strong stimulant
  • Brain realeases seratonin, dopamine, norepinephrine
  • Intense crash and depression
154
Q

Amphetamines/Methamphetamines

A
  • Dopamine and euphoria for up to 8 hours
  • Highly addictive
  • Long term users lose ability to maintain dopamine levels
155
Q

Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly

A
  • Synthetic drug between stimulant and hallucinogen
  • Effects: high BP, dehydration, overheating, death
  • Can damage seratonin neurons
156
Q

Drug Homeostasis

A

How you maintain temperature heartbeat etc.
* Occurs when resting
* Takes place with drugs
* Body recognizes same cues that are normal with drug use (ex: needle or same room) and brain tells body to get head start before taking drug so need more to get same high habituation
* If get the cues and don’t take drug, body will crash
* If in new location but take same amount of drugs could overdose because body doesn’t lower

157
Q

Oral

A
  • Ingesting something
  • Slowest route
  • 30 mins
  • Ex: pills, alcohol
158
Q

Inhalation

A
  • Breathing/snorting/smoking
  • Highly addictive but less than injecting
  • 10 seconds
  • Ex: tobacco, coke
159
Q

Injection

A
  • Most direct, straight to vein
  • Fastest
  • Very dangerous (ex: infected needles)
160
Q

Transdermal

A
  • Drug absorbed through ski
  • Slow, released over several hours
  • Ex: nicotine patch
161
Q

Intramuscular

A
  • Needle into muscle
  • Slowly (vaccines)/quickly (epipen)
  • Fastest route but injections more abused
  • Faster = more addiction potential
162
Q

Tolerance

A

Get used to drug so need more to get same effect
* Decreased sensitivity due to exposure
* cross tolerance: reduction in efficacy of new drug because common CNS target

163
Q

Withdrawal

A

Stop after using for period of time
* Get sick/ill/fatal

Two stages:
1. Acute: few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different experiences for everyone
2. Post-Acute: fewer physical, more emotional/psychologic, same experience for everyone

164
Q

Substance-Induced Disorders

A
  • Conditions caused by substance
  • Mood disorders, anxiety, sleep
165
Q

Substance-Use Disorders

A

Drug causes serious degree of impariment functioning in life, work
* Problem with their substance use
* Use increasing amounts, stronger cravings
* Withdrawals
* Build up tolerance

166
Q

Cognitive Behavioural Therpay (CBT)

A
  • Phsychological drug treatment
  • Congitive and behavioural components
  • Recognize problematic thought patterns and develop better ones
  • Anticipate problematic situations
167
Q

Attention

A

Focus/concentrating on something by excluding other stimulus in environment

168
Q

Divided Attention

A
  • Attention is limited
  • Switch in between two tasks instead of doing simultaneously
169
Q

Directed Attention

A

Attention focused on single task

170
Q

Exogenous/External Cues

A
  • Don’t have to direct to look at to notice
  • Driven by bottom-up/external events
  • Ex: bright colors, loud noises
171
Q

Endogenous/Internal Cues

A
  • Require knowledge to understand cue and intention to follow
  • Driven by top-down/internal events
  • Ex: mouse arrow
  • Cocktail Party Effect: Can focus on one voice in loud environment, hearing someone call your name
172
Q

In-Attentional/Perceptual Blindness

A
  • Aren’t aware of things not in visual when focus is elsewhere
  • Don’t see unexpected things right in front of you
  • Ex: nearest fire extinguisher
173
Q

Change Blindness

A
  • Fail to noice change from previous to current state
  • Ex: someone gets haircut
174
Q

Distal Stimuli

A
  • Object/events in world around you
  • Aware of and respond
175
Q

Proximal Stimuli

A
  • Patterns of stimuli from objects/events that reach senses
  • Ex: light on retina
176
Q

Covert Orienting

A

Act of bringing attention to object/event without body/eye movement

177
Q

Overt Orienting

A

Person turns all/parts of body to alter/maximise sensory impact

178
Q

Attentional Capture

A

Attention captured by motion

179
Q

Neglect Syndrome

A

Brain damage causes change/loss in spatial dimension of divided attention

180
Q

Executive Attention

A
  • Goal-directed behaviour
  • Monitoring conflicts of internal processes
  • Anticipating effects of behaviour
181
Q

Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory

A

All information goes to sensory register > selective filter (filters out what not to pay attention to) > perceptual process (identifies and assigns meaning) > conscious

182
Q

Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory

A

Selective filter after perceptual process
* Selective filter decides what you pass on
* Problem because occurs really quickly (not reality)

183
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation Theory

A

Attenuator weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattenuated ear
* Sensory register > attenuator > perceptual process > conscious

184
Q

Selective Attention

A

Take in all information but don’t consciously process all

185
Q

Spotlight Model of Attention

A

Selective attention from five senses
* Priming: exposure from one stimulus affects response to another

186
Q

Resource Model of Attention

A

Limited resources overtaken if try to pay attention to too many things at once
* Not good at multitasking
* Supported by research

187
Q

Task Similarity

A

Harder to multitask with similar things

188
Q

Task Difficulty

A

Harder tasks require more focus

189
Q

Information Processing Model

A

Sensory, working, and long-term memory
* Brains are similar to computers
* Input from environment, process it, output decision
* Doesn’t describe where things happen in brain
* Bottom-up or stimulus driven model
* Assumes limited storage capacity
* Brain has limited capacity for attention
* assumes serial processing, but has capacity for parallel processing

190
Q

Sensory Memory (Register)

A

Two components based on type of input
* iconic memory (what you see, lasts half a second)
* echoic memory (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds)

191
Q

Partial Report Technique

A

Report one part of a whole field in cued recall
* Requires participants to identify subset of characters from visual display using cued recall
* Immediately after stimulus offset, paticipants could recall mosst
* 75% of visual display was accessible to memory

192
Q

Whole Report Technique

A
  • Required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in proper spatial locations as possible
  • Could recall around 35%
193
Q

Working (Short-Term) Memory

A

Sensory information you actually process
* Can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
* Stored while held in attention

194
Q

Dual Coding Hypothesis

A

Easier to remember words associated with an image than either alone

195
Q

Operational Span Testing

A

Maximum number of words that can be recalled after performing a simple math test and looking at words

196
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

Capcity is unlimited
2 Categories:
1. Explicit (Declarative)
2. Implicit (Non-declarative)

197
Q

Explicit Memory

A
  • Facts/events you can clearly describe
  • Focuses on recalling previous experiences/information

2 Categories:
1. Episodic: event related memories
2. Semantic: words/facts

198
Q

Implicit Memory

A
  • Can’t articulate
  • Previous experiences aid performance without conscious awareness
  • Memories formed by conditioning/habits (procedural memories)
  • Stored in basal ganglia
199
Q

Priming

A

Implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus

Negative priming: prior exposure to stimulus negatively impacts response to same stimulus
* experiencing stimulus then ignoring it
* lowers speed to lower than un-primed levels

Positive priming: Caused by experiencing stimulus
* speeds up processing
* caused by spreading activation

200
Q

Encoding

A

Transferring information from emporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory

201
Q

Encoding Specificity

A

Enhanced memory when testing takes place under same condition

202
Q

Rote Rehearsal

A

Repeating something to remember it
* Least effective

203
Q

Chunking

A

Group information into meaningful categories we already know to make memorization easier

204
Q

Mnemonic Devices

A

Link what you are trying to learn to previously exisiting long term memory
Imagery (make crazy)
pegword system (verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number)

205
Q

Method of Loci

A
  • Good for remembering things in order
  • Link information to locations
206
Q

Self-referencing

A

Think about new information and how it relates to you personally

207
Q

Spacing

A

Spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods compared to all at once

208
Q

Retrieval

A

Trying to remember something you have already learned

209
Q

Priming

A

Prior activation of nodes/associations, often without awareness

210
Q

Context

A

The environment you code and take the test in is helpful for brain

211
Q

State-Dependent

A

Your state at the moment you encode
* If you’re in certain mood when encoding will remember when in same mood

212
Q

Retrieval

A

Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory and bring in to conscious memory

213
Q

Free Recall

A
  • No cue recalling
  • Vetter at recalling first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) on list

Serial Position Curve/Effect: Overall tendency to recall first few items and last few items well and middle items

214
Q

Cued Recall

A
  • Having extra clues to remember words
  • Help retrieve information from long term memory
215
Q

Recognition

A
  • Easiest to recall
  • Present two words and say which you heard
216
Q

False Information

A

Inaccurate recollections of an event

217
Q

Misleading Information

A

Saying certain words can influence how people remember events

218
Q

Flashbulb Memories

A

Highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid
* Still susceptible to reconstruction
* Ex: hearing about 9/11

219
Q

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

A

With repeated stimulation same presynaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential (stronger synapse)
* Brain doesn’t grow new cells to store memories
* Connections between neurons strengthen
* Example of synaptic plasticity
* Neuron transmission flows from presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron

220
Q

Decay in Memory

A

When something isn’t encoded well or hasn’t been retrieved in a while

221
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

New learning impairs old information
Ex: writing new address makes it hard to remember old address

222
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Something you learned in past impairs learning in future

223
Q

Stable

A

Implicit memory (procedural memory like riding a bike) and recognition memory (being able to pick something out from a list)

224
Q

Improve

A

Semantic memories improve until 60
* Have better cyrstallized IQ as age (using knowledge and experience)
* Emotional reasoning

225
Q

Decline

A
  • Recall becomes more difficult
  • Episodic memories impaired (forming new is difficult)
  • Processing speed (older people have a hard time outputting a response)
  • Divided attention (harder to switch inbetween tasks, easily distracted)
  • Prospective memory declines (remembering to do things in future)
226
Q

Dementia

A

Decline in memory and other cognitive functions to point of interfering with daily life

227
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A
  • Caused by lack of Vitamin B1 or thiamine (converts carbohydrates into glucose)
  • Caused by eating disorders, malnutrition, and especially alcoholism
  • Not progressive, if treated can be better
228
Q

Wernicke’s Enchephalopathy

A
  • Precursor to Korsakoff’s
  • If diagnosed early can reverse damage or prevent further damage
229
Q

Wernicke’s Enchephalopathy

A
  • Precursor to Korsakoff’s
  • If diagnosed early can reverse damage or prevent further damage
230
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Inability to recall information previously encoded
* Ability to remember prior experiences

231
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Inability to encode new memories
* Forming long term memories

232
Q

Semantic Networks

A

Concepts organized in mind as connected ideas

233
Q

Hierarchical Semantic Network

A

Store information in a hierarchical way
* Thoughts organized from higheer

234
Q

Modified Semantic Network

A

Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge

235
Q

Stage 1 (Piaget)

A

Sensorimotor Stage
* 0-2 years old
* Information through senses
* Object permanence: bject only exists if you can see it

236
Q

Stage 2 (Piaget)

A

Preoperational Stage
* When children engage in pretend play
* Words symbolize objects and children start to understand symbols
* Egocentric: only concerned about self, no empathy

237
Q

Stage 3 (Piaget)

A

Concrete Operational Stage
* 7-11 years old
* Same amount of material even if changes shape/form
* Ex: water not different if moving same amount to different size glass
* Learn empathy
* Reasoning of math skills

238
Q

Stage 4 (Piaget)

A

Formal Operational Stage
* Abstract consequences
* Moral reasoning (more like adults)

239
Q

Assimilation

A

How we describe new information/experiences in terms of current understandings/schemas

240
Q

Accommodation

A

How we adjust schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember

241
Q

Means-End Analysis

A

Heuristic where analyze main problem and break down into smaller problems
* Attack problem most different from current state and goal state

242
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Using examples that easily come to mind
* Decision making heuristic

243
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

People look for most representative answer
* Look to match prototype
* Can lead to conjunction fallacy: co-occurence of two instances is more likely than a single one

244
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts

245
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Actively seek out only confirming facts

246
Q

Framing Effects

A

How you present the decision can affect the decision
Save x amount or let y amount die

247
Q

Theory of General Intelligence (1)

A
  • People who score well on one test tend to score well on others
  • Factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities
  • Factors underlying consistent abilities is g factor (general intelligence factor)
  • Charles Spearman
248
Q

3 Types of Intelligences

A

Analytical intelligence (academic), creative intelligence (adapt and generate new ideas), practical intelligence (problem solving)

249
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, like new logic problems
* Helps see patterns, organize, identify features, and spatial relationships

250
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
* Increases or stays the same as it ages
* Based on fact, experience, and prior learning

251
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
* Increases or stays the same as it ages
* Based on fact, experience, and prior learning

252
Q

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

A

7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory
* Can have different strengths, dont have to have all
* L.L.Thurnstone

253
Q

Theory of Multiple Intelligence

A

9 independent intelligences
* Don’t depend on each other
* Howard Gardner

254
Q

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

3 independent intelligences
* Based on real world success: analytical, creative, practical

255
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Speak/language expression
Frontal lobe
Broca’s Aphasia: trouble producing speech

256
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Sound processing/understanding
Temporal lobe
Wernicke’s Aphasia: words don’t make any sense

257
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Thick band of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres
* If this is cut leads to split-brain

258
Q

Lerft Side vs Right

A
259
Q

Relativism (Weak Linguistic Determinism)

A

Language influences thought
* Influences but DOES NOT determineontext of everyday encounters
* Differences in language between cultures

260
Q

Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis (Strong Linguistic Determinism)

A

Language determines thought completely
* People understand world through language, which shapes how we view the world

261
Q

Nativist Perspective

A

Children are born with ability to learn language
* Humans have language acquisiton device (LAD) that allow to learn a language
* Critical period (8-9) to learn language
* Noam Chomsky

262
Q

Phonology

A

Phonetic compound, actual sound of language
* 40 phonemes
* Distinctions between sounds

263
Q

Morphology

A

Structure of words
* Words are composed of many building blocks called morphemes

264
Q

Semantics

A

Associate meaning with a word

265
Q

Syntax

A

How words are put together into sentences

266
Q

Pragmatics

A

Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
* Affected by prosody (rhythm, cadence, inflection)

267
Q

Limbic System

A
  • Set of structures in brain
  • Structures play a role in emotions
  • Storage/retrieval of memories (especially if emotional)

MEMORY: HAT Hippo
Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Hippocampus

268
Q

Thalamus

A

Sensory relay station
* Everythiing you hear/taste/etc.
* Nerves > thalamus (directs to correct part of brain)
* Emotions rely on senses
* Smell is ONLY one that bypasses and goes to amygdala area
* Above brainstem

269
Q

Amygdala

A

Agression center
* Produces anger/violence/fear/anxiety
* If destroyed, mellowing effect

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome: bilateral destruction, can lead to hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behaviour

270
Q

Hippocampus

A

Key role in forming new memories
* Short term memory> long term memory
* if destroyed have old memories, but can’t make new memories (anterograde amnesia)
* Area with lot of gluticocorticoid receptors

271
Q

Hypothalamus

A

In limbic system, regulates autonomic nervous system (ANS)
* Flight or fight vs rest and digest
* Controls endocrine system by triggering hormones
* Hunger, sleep, thirst, sex

272
Q

Left Cerebral Cortex

A

Positive emotions evoke more activity on left side

273
Q

Right Cerebral Cortex

A

Negative emotions evoke more activity on right side

274
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Responsible for higher-order functioning
* Everything that makes us human
* Problem solving, deiciosn making, social interactions

275
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

fight or flight
result due to fear effects
* pupils dilate (want to see better/let in more light)
* decrease in salivation (nervous when doing pulic speaking)
* increased respiration rate (more O2)
* increased glucose release (more energy)
* increased adrenaline (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
* decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert it)
* increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to vital organs)

276
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Rest and digest
Opposite effect of sympathetic nervous system
* pupils constrict
* inreased salivation
* decreased respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal)
* increased glucose storage (digesting food)
* decreased adrenaline
* increased digestion

277
Q

Physiological Components

A

When surprised heart rate may increase, muscles tense, temperature increase

278
Q

Cognitive Components

A

Metal assessment made of appraisals of events, thoughts, and expectations

279
Q

Behavioural Components

A

Emotions produce different behavioral responses (ex: ody language, facial expression)
* Vary and interpreted differently

280
Q

6 Main Universal Emotions

A

FAHDSS
1. Fear (eyebrows raised, wrinkles in forehead, eyes and mouth open, lips drawn back)
2. Anger (penetrating stare, eyelids tense, lips pressed together)
3. Happiness (raised cheeks, smiles and smile lines)
4. Disgust (raised and wrinkled cheeks, eyebrows lowered)
5. Sadness (uplifted inner eyebrows, frown)
6. Surprise (raised eyebrows, wide eyes, jaw dropped, forehead wrinkles, raised upper lip, lower lid down)

281
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses
event > physiological response > interpretation > emotion

282
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

Found flaws in idea that physiological esponse triggered emotion
Physiological response and emotions occur at the same time
Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression
* Can experience physiological repsonse without emotion (heart racing after exercise)
* Many different emotions had same physiological response
* Physiological response was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to occur instantly

283
Q

Schachter-Singer (Two-factor Theory of Emotion)

A

Physiological and cognitive esponses simultaneously form experience of emotion
If physiologically aroused, don’t feel specific emotion until able to label/identify reason
* event > physiological response > identify reason for situation (consciously) > emotion

284
Q

Lazarus Theory

A

Experience of emotion depends on how situations cognitively appraised (labelled)
* Labelled good = positive
* Labelled bad = negative
* How labelled based on cultural/individual differences
* Ex: skydiving (exhilarating or terrifying)
* Event > label the event (appraisal) > emotion and physiological respo based on appraisal if + or -

LAzarus = LAbel

285
Q

Appraisal Theory of Stress

A

Stress arises less from physical events but from assessment/intepretation of stresses/events

286
Q

Primary Appraisal

A

Assessing stress in present situation
If negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal

3 Categories of Response:
1. Irrelevant: see stress but not important
2. Benign/Positive
3. Stressful/Negative

287
Q

Secondary Appraisal

A

Evaluation of individual’s ability to cope with a situation
* Harm: what damage has already been caused
* Threat: how much damage could be caused
* Challenge: how situation can be overcome/conquered

288
Q

Stressors

A
  1. Significant life changes: changes in personal life
    * Ex: death of loved one, marriage, losing job, having kids, leaving home
  2. Catastrophic Events: large scale event that everyone considers threatening
    * Ex: wars, natural disasters
  3. Daily hassles: seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life
    * Ex: long lines, traffic, forgetting keys
    * usually accompanies inadequate income/no employment
  4. Ambient: global stresses integrated into environment
    * Can negatively impact even if not aware
    * Ex: pollution, noise, crowding
289
Q

Adrenal Glands

A
  • Adrenal glands release catecholamine’s: tyrosine derivatives developed from ectoderm (epinephrine and norepinepherine)

Adrenal Cortex: releases glucocorticoid (cortisol):: sterioid hormone that redistributes glucose energy in body and supressing immune system

290
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A

Hans Selye
1. Alarm Phase: stress reaction starts, heart races, resources mobilized, ready for fight or flight
2. Resistance: fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, lots of cortisol
3. Exhaustion: resistance isn’t followed by recovery, body’s stress resources depleted, tissues dampened and immune system susceptible to illness (negative impact of long term stress)

291
Q

Stress on Heart

A

Hypertension (high BP), vscular disease, coronary artery disease

292
Q

Stress on Metabolism

A
  • Body secretes cortisol and glucagon
  • Glucose builds up in blood
293
Q

Stress on Reproduction

A
  • Shut down in women when stressed
  • FSH/LH/estrogen/progesterone inhibited
  • Reduced testosterone and impotence
294
Q

Stress on Immunity

A

Acute stress: inflammation
Chronic stress: stop activating immune system, suppresses

295
Q

Frontal Cortex

A

Impulse control, reasoning, judgement, and planning
* Lots of glucocorticoid receptors (stress)

296
Q

Depression

A

Anhedonia: inability to experience leasure, so percieve more stressors
Anterior cingulate stops responding to serotonin

297
Q

Three As of Stress

A
  1. Anger:
    Angrier individuals were more likely to experience stress related illnesses (ex: heart attack)
    Fight of sympathetic response
  2. Anxiety:
    Centers on amygdala, fears and phobias so percieve things as more scary
    Flight of sympathetic response
  3. Addiction:
    Bad options for coping mechanisms
    Impairment to frontal cortex (judgement) increases likelihood of inappropriate coping
298
Q

Lower Motor Neurons

A

Efferent neurons of the PNS synpase on control skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is other end of motor unit forma neuromuscular junction
* Control muscles of limbs and trunk
* LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck

Lower Motor Neuron Signs:
* Atrophy of skeletal muscle
* Fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle)
* Hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle, how much muscle contracted when relaxed)
* Hyporeflexia (decreased muscle strength reflex)

299
Q

Somatosensation

A

Position sense, vibration, touch, pain, temperature
Mechanoreceptors: position, vibration, touch (fast, large diameter axon, thick myelin sheath)
Nociceptors: pain (slow, small diameter axon)
Thermoreceptors: temperature (slow, small diameter axon)

300
Q

Receptors

A
301
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A
302
Q

Muscle Reflexes

A

Afferent (stimulus) and efferent (response)
Muscle stretch reflex happens on same side causing muscle to contract after stretched

303
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

No conscious involvement
Efferent neurons in peripheral nervous system (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells)
Divide into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
SNS: starts middle of spinal chord, short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine, second neuron goes to target cell (short then long), fight or flight
PNS: starts at brain stem or bottom of spinal chord, first neuron sends long axon, synapse with ganglion of second neuron, sends short axon to target cell (long then short), rest or digest

304
Q

Gray matter

A

Most of neuron somas, inside of spinal chord

305
Q

White Matter

A

Myelinated axons, outside of spinal chord

306
Q

Upper Motor Neurons

A
  • Control LMNs
  • Starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN (corticospinal tract, collection of axons)
  • corticobulbar tract, goes to brainstem

Upper Motor Signs:
1. Hyperreflexia (increase in muscle stretch reflex, without periodic stimulation of LMNS by UMNs become hypersensitive and get bigger reflex)
2. Clonus (rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle, caused by hyperreflexia)
3. Hypertonia (increased tone of skeletal muscles, increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch
4. Extensor Plantar Response (If scrape hard object along bottom of foot toes will come down on the object, flexor, toes extend up, extensor)

307
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca’s area (speech production)

308
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orientation in 3D)

Somatosensory Cortex: motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal)
Involved in recieving sensory signals from skin

309
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Vision, “striate cortex” (striated cells)

310
Q

Temporal Cortex

A

Sound, Wernicke’s area

311
Q

Dominant Hemispheres

A

Left hemisphere dominates for most people

Dominant hemisphere: language, math
Non-dominant: Emotional tone of language, if people happy/sad/anxious, reativity, music, special processing, big picture concepts

Hemispheres communicate via corpus callosum

312
Q

Medulla & Pons

A

Controls heart beat/breathing and cross over point for nerves

313
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Filters information and sends important information to thalamus
* Sleep/wake cycle (arousal)
* Ability to be aware
* From brainstem to other brain areas
* Autonomic function
* Controlling respiration, digestion, lower/higher functions

314
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coordinates voluntary movement (motor plan information sent here and recieves position sense information sends feedback to cerebellum and motor cortex)
* Middle cerebellum: coordinates middle body movement and walking, sides are involved in movement of limbs (arms and legs) and speech and movement of eyes
* Alcohol effects brain here

315
Q

Long Tracts

A

Collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
2 important Ones:
1. Motor (UMNs)
2. Somatosensory

316
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

Most are attached to brainstem
12 pairs

317
Q

Basal Ganglia

A
  • Major role in motor functions
  • Don’t have UMNs
  • Help motor areas to perform proper movement
  • Cognition and emotion
318
Q

Glutamate

A

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter
Associated with increased corticol arousal
Recticular Activating System: has diffuse projection of glutamate to cerebral cortex (required for consciousness, midbrain structures)

319
Q

GABA (brain) & Glycine (spinal chord)

A

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

320
Q

Acetylcholine

A
  • Nuclei (basal and septal nuclei) in frontal lobe that releases to cerebral cortex
  • Released for LMNs
  • Autonomic nervous system
321
Q

Histamine

A
  • From hypothalamus
  • Sends to cerebral cortex
322
Q

Norepinephrine

A
  • Area in pons (locus coeruleus) that releases to cerebral cortex
  • Some in autonomic nervous system but less than acetylcholine

MCAT Psych/Soc (1 decks)

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