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Option Biology > Neurobiology > Flashcards

Neurobiology Flashcards

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1
Q

How is the brain formed

A

most of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord but the anterior part of the neural tube develops into the brain

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2
Q

Outline brain metabolism

A
  • the energy demands for the brain are high
  • cell respiration produces ATP which is required to synthesise neurotransmitters
  • carry active transport to maintain resting potential
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3
Q

What is the function of the cerebral hemisphere

A

Acts as the centre for highly complex functions such as learning, memory and emotion

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4
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus

A

Maintains homeostasis via coordination of the nervous and endocrine systems, produces hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary

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5
Q

What is the function of the pituitary gland

A

Produces and secretes hormones such as ADH

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6
Q

What is the function of the medulla oblongata

A
  • Controls automatic and homeostatic activities such as swallowing, digestion
  • Controls involuntary responses
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7
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum

A

controls balance and coordination

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8
Q

Outline the different ways in which brain functions can be identified

A
  • autopsy
  • lesions
  • fMRI
  • animal experiences
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9
Q

Explain how an autopsy works can identify brain functions

A

Comparisons can be made between the brains of healthy and diseased corpses to identify affected brain areas

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10
Q

Explain how lesions can be used to identify brain functions

A
  • They are abnormal areas of brain tissue which can indicate the effect of the loss of a brain area
  • CT scans and autopsy
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11
Q

What are some of the limitations of the use of lesions to identify the role of different brain parts

A
  • The effects of lesions can be difficult to identify as many functions may involve multiple brain areas
  • the brain has the capacity to re-learn certain skills by re-routing instructions to other areas
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12
Q

Explain how animal experiments can be used to identify brain functions

A

Experimentation on animals involves less ethical restrictions than human studies
- methods like lobotomy are highly invasive and potentially damaging

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13
Q

What are some limitations of animal experiments

A

the differences between animal and human brains making valid comparisons difficult

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14
Q

Explain how fMRI can be used to identify brain functions

A
  • It measures changes in blood flow through the brain. This can indicate which regions of the brain are most active
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15
Q

What are the advantages of using fMRI

A

The procedure is non-invasive and can be performed without injury

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16
Q

Why is the pupil reflex important

A
  • Failure of the pupil reflex indicates the damage to medulla oblongata
  • If the brain stem fails then the organism can no longer function and it is unlikely that higher-order brain functions persist.
  • it is used to test for whole-brain death
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17
Q

Outline the correlation between body size and brain size

A
  • The larger the animal the larger the brain required to monitor and control its processes
  • brain size is limited by its metabolism
  • a positive correlation between body but this relationship is not directly proportional
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18
Q

Outline the Enlargement and folding of the cerebral cortex

A
  • The folds in the cortex enabling a large increase in surface area without increasing the size of the cranium
  • the folding has become more extensive in the number of neurons present in the cortex controlling complex behaviour
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19
Q

Outline the Evolutionary development of the cerebral cortex

A
  • in certain mammals the cerebrellum has remained a constant proportion compared to the overall size of the brain
  • the cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain than other mammals and is more highly developed
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20
Q

What is the link between the cerebral cortex and the development of complex behaviours

A

The cerebral cortex linked to the development of complex behaviours but changes in the connections between the neurons is also key to behaviour development

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21
Q

What is the function of cerebral hemispheres

A

Higher order functions

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22
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system

A

It controls unconscious processes using the medulla oblongata

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23
Q

What are examples of activities controlled by the medulla

A

swallowing, heart rate and breathing rate

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24
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system consist of

A

sympathetic & parasympathetic nerves

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25
Q

What is the function of parasympathetic nerves

A

cause an increase in blood flow to the gut (increases salivary release, lowers ventilation rate + reduces heart rate)

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26
Q

What is the function of sympathetic

A

cause a decrease in blood flow to the gut (decrease salivary release + increases ventilation rate + increases heart rate)

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27
Q

What is the function of parasympathetic

A

cause a decrease in blood flow to the gut (decrease salivary release + increases ventilation rate + increases heart rate)

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28
Q

What is meant by the fact that the cerebral hemisphere are bilateral (stimuli, movement & visual field)

A
  • The right side of the brain receives stimuli from the left side of the body
  • The left visual field from both eyes is processed by the right side of the brain
  • The left side of the brain controls movement, muscle contraction on the right side of the body
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29
Q

List the different types of receptors

A
  • mechanoreceptors (movement)
  • chemoreceptors (chemicals)
  • photoreceptors (light)
  • thermoreceptors (temperature)
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30
Q

where are rod and cone cells loacted

A

in the retina

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31
Q

olfactory receptors function

A

Receptor cells possess cilia which project into the air in the nose. Olfactory receptor proteins are located in the membrane of the cilia. Different olfactory receptors respond to different chemicals

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32
Q

Features of cone cells

A
  • dominant in bright light
  • three different types
  • concentrated around the fovea
  • high resolution
  • certain wavelengths (red, blue, green)
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33
Q

Features of rod cells

A
  • dominant in dim light
  • 1 type of cell
  • throughout the retina
  • low resolution
  • all wavelengths
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34
Q

Explain how light enters the eye via the lens and is reflected by choroid cells

A
  • Rod and cone cells (photoreceptors) convert light stimuli into an action potential
  • Bipolar neurones are specialised sensory neurones
  • Retinal ganglion cells transmit the impulse to the occipital lobe of the brain
  • Ganglia have a very long axon and form the optic nerve
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35
Q

Outline the perception of light

A

1) light reflects enter via the lens and is reflected by the choroid
2) rod and cone cells convert the light stimuli into an action potential
3) The impulse is passed from the photoreceptor to the bipolar neurones and to the ganglion cells which transmit the impulse to the occipital lobe via the optic nerve

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36
Q

Outline neural pruning

A
  • neural pruning is the removal of neural connections caused by lack of use
  • it occurs during brain development
  • allows new neural connections to be formed
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37
Q

Outline the function of Broca’s area

A

language comprehension/processing

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38
Q

Outline the effect of the cochlear implant on hearing

A
  • allowed quieter sounds to be heard;
  • the person would be able to hear human speech
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39
Q

Describe the normal function of the cochlea

A
  • vibrations cause fluid in the cochlea to move
  • causes movement of haircells
  • each frequency stimulates specific hair cells
  • hair cells generate impulses;
  • connected to the brain by the auditory nerve
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40
Q

Outline the role of the brain in involuntary control

A
  • medulla controls involuntary activities
  • eg: swallowing/breathing/heart rate
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41
Q

Suggest how the plasticity of the brain can benefit humans

A
  • allows regeneration of neurons after brain trauma
  • increases chance of survival
  • allows brain to make new synapses throughout lifetime
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42
Q

How do cochlear implants work

A

Its function is to generate electrical signals from sound vibrations and transmit them to your auditory nerve

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43
Q

What is a cochlear implant

A

a surgically implanted device that helps correct hearing loss associated with damaged cochlea hairs

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44
Q

How is sound perceived by the human ear

A

1) Eardrum membrane is moved by sound waves
2) Eardrum causes movement of the bones of the middle ear
3) Bones of the middle ear amplify sound
4) Bones of the middle ear on the oval window causing movement of fluid within the cochlea
5) Hair cells are mechanoreceptors
6) Different hair cells respond to different wavelengths
7) Hair cells release a chemical neurotransmitter when stimulated
8) Sounds are transmitted into nerve impulses carried by auditory nerve to the brain

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45
Q

Detecting movement and maintaining balance

A

Movement of the fluid is detected by hair cells in the semicircular canal
If the hairs trigger they in turn stimulate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain by the vestibular nerve
The brain deduces the direction of head movement from the combination of impulses

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46
Q

Red-green colour-blindness

A
  • The genes responsible for producing red or green photoreceptors are located on the X chromosome
  • If either of these genes are mutated, red and green wavelengths cannot be distinguished
  • As these genes are recessive and located on the X chromosome, red-green colour-blidness is more common in males
47
Q

What is contralateral processing

A

both sides of the brain are responsible for processing information from both eyes

48
Q

The visual cortex processes visual stimuli

A

Stimuli from both left retinas are processed in the left visual cortex of the occipital lobe. Therefore both sides of the brain process images from both eyes

49
Q

Characteristics of innate bahviour

A
  • genetically based
  • unaffected by the environment
  • low variation in population (diversity)
  • not modified by the individual
50
Q

Explain the use of the pupil reflex as a test for brain damage.

A
  • «bright» light is shone in to the eye
  • the pupil reflex is when the pupils constrict
  • if not observed could indicate damage to the medulla oblongata
51
Q

state the property of the nervous system that allows it to change with experience and allows the brain to recover from a stroke

A

plasticity

52
Q

Explain the stages of development and differentiation of neurons

A

1) development of neurons occurs in the neural tube/plate
2) produces large numbers of cells that differentiate into neurons
3) some neurons migrate
4) axons grow out from the immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli
5) neurons form connections with «multiple» other neurons
6) some neurons removed by neural pruning

53
Q

Characteristics of learned behaviour

A
  • based on experience
  • highly affected by environment
  • high variation in population (diversity)
  • modified by individual
54
Q

What are the three types of learning

A
  • reflex conditioning
  • operant conditioning
  • imprinting
55
Q

What is reflex conditioning

A

it results in an automatic response to a stimulus

56
Q

What is operant conditioning

A

rewards for desired behaviour and punish for incorrect behaviours

57
Q

What is imprinting

A

phase sensitive learning that is rapid and independent of the consequences of behaviour

58
Q

Where does innate behaviour come from

A

the result of natural selection, those which are favourable give an individual a survival and reproductive advantage

59
Q

What are reflexes

A

Rapid and unconscious responses allow for danger avoidnace with minimal harm to the organism

60
Q

Outline the reflex arc

A

1) Stimulus
2) Receptor cells detect change in environment
3) Dorsal root ganglion
4) Sensory neurone
5) Relay neurone
6) Motor neurone
7) Ventral root ganglion
8) Effectors takes action

61
Q

What is in the fovea

A

the cone cells

62
Q

Feature of the blind spot

A

no photoreceptors

63
Q

Function of the optic nerve

A

sends electrical signal to the brain

64
Q

what is the function of ganglion cells

A

carries electrical nerve impulse from bipolar cells to the optic nerve

65
Q

What is the function of bipolar cells

A

sends electrical nerve impulse from the photoreceptors (rod and cone cells) to the ganglion cells

66
Q

What is the function of semicircular canals

A

involved in balance and spatial orientation

67
Q

What are examples of reflexes

A

sneezing, coughing and knee jerking

68
Q

Where are the sensory neurones found

A

in the dorsal root ganglion

69
Q

where are the motor neurones found

A

in the ventral root ganglion

70
Q

Where are the relay neurones found

A

grey matter of CNS

71
Q

What is an example of learned behaviour

A
  • birdsongs
  • early birdsong pattern is innate
  • common to a species (pattern of the song)
  • later birdsong pattern is modified based on learning from other birds
  • specific to an individual (the right tune of the song)
  • isolated birds have abnormal songs
72
Q

What is an example of innate behaviour

A
  • woodlice
  • They are prone to dehydration and will move faster and turn more to improve chances of leaving dry area
73
Q

What is an example of reflex conditioning

A

Pavlov reflex

74
Q

Outline Pavlov’s experiment

A
  • Unconditioned response: the dog salivates in response to seeing food
  • Conditioning: every time the dog sees food, a bell is rung
  • Conditioned response: the dog salivates in repose to a bell being rung (an association between food and bell - against nature)
75
Q

What is an example of operant conditioning

A

the skinner box

76
Q

Outline the skinner box experiment

A

rats were trained to push a lever depending on the colour of the light
- reward for food
- punishment through electrical shock

77
Q

What is memory

A

the process in which information is encoded, stored and retrieved

78
Q

What is operant conditioning

A

a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences

79
Q

Describe the role of bipolar cells in the eye

A

1) transmit the signals from the photoreceptors «rods and cones» to the ganglion cells
2) groups of/more than one rod cell synapse with one bipolar cell
3) one cone cell synapses with one bipolar cell
4) once light is absorbed bipolar cell depolarizes
5) activates/depolarizes a ganglion cel

80
Q

what are the 2 types of neurotransmitters

A

excitatory and inhibitory

81
Q

Outline excitatory neurotransmitters

A

It causes an influx of positive sodium ions into the post-synaptic neurone making the membrane potential more positive until the threshold is reached at which point the post-synpatic neurone starts to depolarise

82
Q

Named example of an excitatory neurotransmitter

A

Acetylcholine is an example of an excitatory neurotransmitter

83
Q

Outline inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

It hyperpolarises the post-synaptic neurone by causing an influx of negative chlorine iosn making the neuron’s membrane potential more negative. It either takes longer for the threshold to be reacher or the action potential is inhibited and does not occur

84
Q

Named example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA

85
Q

What is summation

A

Sum of all the chemicals and depending if they pass the threshold an action potential will be created

86
Q

What is cancel summation

A

involves the addition of both excitatory and inhibitory potentials that cancel each other out

87
Q

What is temporal summation

A

when many excitatory potentials from one neurone triggers the threshold point

88
Q

What is spatial summation summation

A

excitatory potentials from many neurons trigger the threshold point

89
Q

Characteristics of fast-acting neurotransmitters

A
  • milliseconds
  • cause an influx of ions
  • short-lived effect (neurotransmitter is broken down rapidly)
  • specific across a single synapse
90
Q

Characteristics of slow-acting neurotransmitters

A
  • hundred of milliseconds
  • cause the release of secondary messengers within the neuron
  • Longer-lived effect – secondary messengers can still be working several days later
  • Localised to an area – can diffuse to affect a number of neurons
91
Q

What are named example of slow-acting neurotransmitters

A

Dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine

92
Q

What are named example of fast-acting neurotransmitters

A

Ach and GABA

93
Q

What role can slow-acting neurotransmitters have

A

can strengthen the neural pathways involved in learning and memory

94
Q

characteristics of endorphins

A
  • secreted by pituatary gland
  • act as natural painkillers
  • bind to opioid receptors in the synapse inhibiting synaptic transmission and hence lessening or preventing the perception of pain
95
Q

How can psychoactive drugs affect the brain?

A
  • Increase or decrease the release of neurotransmitters
  • Breakdown re-uptake proteins which are responsible for returning used components of neurotransmitters to the pre-synaptic neurone
  • Block re-uptake proteins so the neurotransmitters remain in the synapse
  • They mimic or block neurotransmitters binding to the receptors on post-synaptic membranes
  • They inhibit the production of new neurotransmitters
96
Q

The effect of a stimulant (cocaine) on the nervous system

A
  • blocks the re-uptake pumps on pre-synaptic membrane
  • dopamine remains in the synaptic cleft
  • more dpamine continues to be released
  • summative increase in post-synpatic transmission
  • enhances feelings of pleasure
  • highly addictive
97
Q

The effect of a stimulant (nicotine) on the nervous system

A
  • nicotine mimics Ach and binds to Ach receptors triggering an action potential in the post-synaptic neurone
  • it remains in the synaptic cleft and continues to stimulate the post-synaptic neurone
  • enhances feelings of pleasure
  • highly addictive
98
Q

The effect of a sedative (THC) on the nervous system

A
  • THC inhibits the release of GABA by binding to cannabinoid receptors
  • GABA cannot inhibit dopamine release and more dopamine is released
  • causes enhanced feelings of pleasure
99
Q

The effect of a sedative (alcohol) on the nervous system

A
  • alcohol increases the inhibitory effect of GABA, causing it to remain bound to its receptor longer
  • alcohol binds to glutamate receptors preventing glutamate from stimulating the post-synaptic neurone
  • alcohol indirectly causes dopamine release and enhanced feelings of pleasure
100
Q

What affects addiction

A
  • Genetic predisposition (epigenetics)
  • Social environment factors (peer pressure)
  • Dopamine secretion (many drugs increase the dopamine secretion involved in the rewards pathways)
101
Q

What are the two types of anaesthesia

A

local and general

102
Q

The effect of anaesthesia on synapses

A

Block receptors on the pre-synaptic membrane
Increase release of inhibitory neurotransmitters
Inhibit binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
Hyper-polarize the postsynaptic neuron

103
Q

what hormone mimics anaesthesia

A

endorphins

104
Q

what is ethology

A

study of animal behavior in natural conditions

105
Q

what factor can change behaviour

A

natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour. Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population

106
Q

What is an example of the genetic basis of behaviour and its change by natural selection

A
  • migration of blackcaps
  • normally they migrate to spain to avoid cold weather
  • small number of blackcaps have started to migrate to the UK
  • shorter flight to the UK and good supply of food
  • birds migrating to the Uk return to Germany before those in spain and genes of migrating to the UK have increased (successful reproduction)
  • direction of migration as changed
107
Q

Example of the development of altruistic behaviour by natural selection

A
  • vampire bats
  • If one of the bats in the group fails to feed for more than 2 consecutive nights it may die of starvation
  • Bats that have fed successfully regurgitate blood for the others
  • low mortality rates and a high rate of breeding
108
Q

What does altruism behaviour mean

A

behaviour which benefits another individual at the cost of the performer

109
Q

Example of increasing chances of survival by optimal prey choice

A
  • the act of searching for food
  • benefit of energy outweighs the energetic time and cost spent foraging
  • it can harm an animals reproductive fitness
  • Optimal prey selection increase the chance of survival
    The crabs prefer to eat intermediate size mussels, they are the most profitable in terms if the energy yield per second of time spent breaking open the shells
110
Q

Example of behavior affecting chances of survival and reproduction

A
  • Jacks (young salmon)
  • Are smaller
  • Must sneak up on the females and attempt to shed sperm over their eggs
  • high survival rate because they are less exposed to predators

Hook-noses (older salmon)
- Bigger
- Can fight each other to access to females
Laying eggs
- less survival rate because they are more exposed to predators

111
Q

Examples of innate behavior that increases the chances of survival and reproduction of offspring

A
  • Females have their cubs at the same time
  • Lactating at the same time
  • Cubs get their milk from different lionesses
  • Increase the cub’s chance of survival
  • Male cubs of the same age are ready to leave the group at the same time
  • So can compete for dominance for another group more efficiently
  • Increasing their chance of reproduction
112
Q

Example of the development and loss of LEARNED behaviour

A

Behaviour learned
The ability to pierce the seals has been lost from the blue tits population, because blue tits have a relatively short life span, so a learned behaviour can be removed from the population rapidly
Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour

113
Q

Example of mate selection

A

Males have showy plumage and gather at a site to perform distinctive courtship dance
Bright plumage —> but survive predation
Long dance —> high level of overall fitness
Attract female: mate selection
Natural selection

High fitness
Colors —> genetically selected by females (if they are able to have a bright color plumage and staying alive —> female chose them to pass intelligent and fit genes to the baby)

Natural selection favors specific types of mate behavior
Increases chance of survival
Chosen male will leave more offsprings
Pass on gene/behavior to offspring
Behavior/allele will become more frequent in a population

Option Biology (1 decks)

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