module 8

Question 1

ethnicity vs race

Answer 1

• While many people use the term ethnicity and race interchangeably, ethnicity actually refers to cultural characteristics
race refers to biological characteristics

Question 2

describe ethnicity

Answer 2

Ethnicityrefers to cultural differences in food, language, clothing practices, religion, marriage practices, and other traditions.

Question 3

describe objective ethnicity

Answer 3

• Objective ethnicityis your ancestral lineage (that is, where your parents and grandparents are from).

Question 4

describe subjective ethnicity

Answer 4

• Subjective ethnicityis how you choose to identify. For example, a person with mixed ethnic ancestry might feel closer and more familiar to the one aspect of their heritage and want to highlight that part of their heritage over others.

Question 5

describe race

Answer 5

• racerefers to biological differences between racial groups commonly distinguished by skin colour, eye colour and shape, hair colour and texture. While racial differences exist, the meanings these differences come to take on in any given cultural context are social
  
  • “race is a culturally constructed category used to classify humankind”

Question 6

describe the racialization of aboriginals and define the term

Answer 6

Prior to North American colonization, Aboriginal peoples did not consider themselves part of the same racial (or ethnic) group. . It was only after European colonization that North American Indigenous groups come to be understood as a homogenous group. In fact, many of the common assumptions we have about race are false.
In order to highlight the socially constructed nature of race classifications and categories, the term racialization has recently been introduced.Racializationis the process through which race and racial differences get attributed to a population

Question 7

racialization deeper meaning

Answer 7

• The concept of racialization moves the category of race from a static, biological-based idea to one that is actively shaped in and through social relations. So, while we can’t ignore biological differences about race, we also can’t overlook the ways in which racial and racialized meanings come to exist. Importantly, if processes of racialization aren’t static, then they are also open to change. The systemic and structural racial hierarchies we see today (unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige across racial lines) can be understood through the historical racialization of racial groups, which we will examine in the next section.

Question 8

describe linneaus’ view on race

18th century

Answer 8

• Carl Linneaus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, was considered the father of modern taxonomy. Taxonomy is a system of naming, classification, and categorization that emerged alongside the Enlightenment in an attempt to classify the natural world (Graves, 2002).
  
  • Linneaus categorized humans into four separate species: Europaeus (Europeans), Asiaticus (Asians), Americanus (North American Aboriginals), and Afer (Africans). He not only problematically placed these groups on a hierarchy with Europeans slotted in the highest rank (he himself a European), but he also aligned whole groups of people with Hippocrates’s classification of personality temperaments.
  • For Linneaus, Europeans were considered sanguine (meaning passionate), Asians were considered melancholic (meaning sad), Aboriginals were considered choleric (meaning angry), and Africans were considered bilious (meaning lazy). From today’s standards, we see this classification system as inherently racist, but at the time it circulated as “scientific knowledge” and served to justify many early forms of genocide and slavery.

Question 9

define genocide and canada’s example

Answer 9

Genocideis “the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation” (Kendall, Nygaard, & Thompson, 2004) and can be seen in the history of Canada through the treatment of Indigenous populations. Slavery was actively practiced in Canada until 1834 when the British Parliament abolished slavery in all its colonies, but it continues to exist—albeit covertly—through practices of migrant labour (Cooper, 2013). Early racial classifications systems like Linneaus’ can be understood as an example ofscientific racism—the use of the scientific method to justify racial hierarchy (Blatt, 2007).

Question 10

who extended linneaus’ work?

Answer 10

• Extending the work of Carl Linneaus was Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840), a German physiologist who argued that there were five separate races: Caucasians (whom he called the white race), Mongolians (whom he called the yellow race), Malayans (whom he called the brown race), Ethiopians (whom he called the black race), American Indians (whom he called the red race).
Blumenbach’s early work usedcraniometry—the measurement of skull sizes and shapes—to determine racial differences of intelligence (Graves, 2002). From a sociological perspective, his work is not only another example of scientific racism but also an example ofbiological determinism

Question 11

what is biological determinism?

Answer 11

the assumption that human differences reside in the body (Blatt, 2007). Biological determinisms are dangerous because they fail to take into account social and environmental differences for the causes of racial difference (for example, access to education and literacy).

Question 12

describe darwin’s view on race. 19th century

Answer 12

harles Darwin (1809–1882) was an English naturalist known for the theory of evolution—the idea that all human organisms on earth share common ancestry (Barkan, 1996). Unlike earlier theories of racial classification, Darwin was amonogenist, upholding the theory that all humans evolved from a single ancestry and that any racial differences were superficial.
	• He contended that racial differences did exist, but these differences were the result of environmental factors like geography (i.e., amount of exposure to the sun) and diet (i.e., availability of food in particular geographic regions). His theory of evolution explains why northern populations (where there is less exposure to the sun) are fairer skinned and why southern populations (where there is more exposure to the sun) are darker skinned. So, while Darwin moves away from the dangerous biological determinisms seen in earlier racial classifications, he unfortunately supported the scientific racist assumptions that white populations had evolved to a more “civilized” version of the human species, while racialized populations were relegated as “primitive” (once again serving to justify slavery and genocide). While Darwin certainly did not invent racism, parts of his theory of evolution fostered it (Graves, 2002).

Question 13

what did UNESCO urge people to think about racism? 20th/21st century

Answer 13

After much question on the differences between human races, and the many atrocities that followed the 18th- and 19th-century practices of slavery, colonialism, and genocide, in 1950 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) made a global public declaration rejecting any scientific basis for theories of racial hierarchy. Morally condemning both racism and racist practices, UNESCO urged people to move towards acolour-blind approach

Question 14

what is the color blind approach? why is it wrong?

Answer 14

• At face value, this may have seemed like a good strategy to end racial discrimination, but in reality, colour-blindness actually functioned to further mask racial and ethnic inequalities by effectively turning a blind eye to the experiences of racism and racial discrimination. While effective in moving beyond biological determinisms of race, colour-blindness cannot account for the fact that many people of colour still experience racial and ethnic discrimination.

Question 15

who fought against the color blind theory?

Answer 15

• Franz Fanon was one of the key scholars and activists working against the colour-blind approach. In his important book Black Skin, White Masks (1952/2008), he draws careful attention to the racism and dehumanization inherent in situations of colonial domination, like the one he was living in the United States.

Question 16

1960’s race

Answer 16

• Critical race theorists of the 1960s offer an important critique of the colour-blind approach by speaking to people’s experiences of racial oppression. At that time in North America much of society was racesegregated. As your text explains, African-Americans and Canadians (as well as Aboriginal groups) were barred from many “white” public places, including res taurants, schools, buses, country clubs, and sports leagues (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2016, p. 181). Moreover, in both Canada and the United States, interracial marriages were banned, andpopulation transferswere actively practiced—“a process whereby minority groups are forcibly expelled or are limited to a specific [geographical] location” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 181)

Question 17

Why do we see racial quarters of the city?

Answer 17

Part of the reason we see racial and ethnic quarters of the city (e.g., Chinatowns in many Canadian cities or Africville outside of Halifax) is because historically, racial and ethnic minority groups were barred from white spaces (often the centre areas of the city) and therefore created their own areas for living, commerce, and socializing.

Question 18

how can we move past the color blind approach?

Answer 18

• In order to move beyond the naive colour-blind approach was to acknowledge, value, and celebrate racial and ethnic differences (i.e., not to presume differences didn’t exist) and to make legal and structural changes to end racism. Alongside the Civil Rights Movement in the US, and to a lesser degree Canada, the ideology ofmulticulturalismbegins to set in place important legal steps to end social, economic, and political forms of racism.

Question 19

a brief history of multiculturalism

Answer 19

1962 Canada lifts overt race restrictions on immigration policies. Prior to this, those immigrating from Europe, the U.K., and the U.S. were preferred over “undesirable immigrants” (language used by the Canadian government).
1967 The immigration Points System is established, judging immigrants on qualifications such as language and skill, in an attempt to make the process of immigration more equitable.
1971 Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declares his commitment to the policy of multiculturalism.
1973 Canada establishes the Ministry of Multiculturalism and the Canadian Consultative Council on Multiculturalism.
1982 Multiculturalism acknowledged in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
1988 Canada became first country in the world to adopt a legislative framework for multiculturalism, the Canadian Multiculturalism Act, which formalized the government’s commitment to “promote the full and equitable participation of individuals and communities of all origins in the continuing evolution and shaping of all aspects of Canadian society” by establishing legislation to protect ethnic, racial, linguistic, and religious diversity within Canadian society

Question 20

describe 21st century race relations and democratic racism

Answer 20

democratic racismto talk about the deep paradox of race relations in contemporary Canadian society. On the one hand, they contend that Canadians have a deep commitment to liberal democracy, fairness, justice, and multiculturalism, as evidenced in some of our laws and policies, and yet, on the other hand, we also know that systemic racism continues to exist, as evidenced in patterns of social, economic, and cultural exclusion.

Question 21

define and describe racism

Answer 21

Racism is defined by your text as “a specific form of prejudice based on aspects of physical appearance such as skin colour” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2016, p. 182). The main point to remember about racism is that it doesn’t necessarily refer to race. It’s a term we use to describe a process whereby some social groups are able to place other groups at a disadvantage. As an applied strategy, racism contains elements of prejudice, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, and discrimination; hence, racism is the all-embracing term.

Question 22

describe and define prejudice

Answer 22

Prejudice is an attitude that is unrelated to reality and is generalized to all members of a certain groups (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2016, p. 182). A prejudice leads to a stereotype. In short, it’s an attitude based on preconceived notions about members of a selected groups (such as brown people are not from Canada). The term prejudice is derived from two Latin words: prae meaning “before” and judicum meaning “judgment” (Murray et al., 2012, p.

Question 23

define and describe racial stereotyping

Answer 23

Racial Stereotyping
Racial stereotyping are “overgeneralizations about the appearance, behaviour, or other characteristics of members of particular groups
”r high jumper) are excellent jumpers. The problem with stereotypes is that it lumps all people of a particular race into a single category, when in reality appearance, behaviours, and other personal characteristics range greatly within racial categories. Moreover, stereotypes tend to naturalize these differences (i.e., somehow they are biological differences) and not found in social and cultural patterns

Question 24

describe and define racial profiling

Answer 24

Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is when members of select racial or ethnic groups become subjected to greater criminal justice and/or institutional surveillance. Common examples of racial profiling include airport security checks, border patrol, mall surveillance, roadway check stops, police violence and brutality, and even schoolyard surveillance. One of the major problems with racial profiling is that racial characteristics (rather than behaviour) contribute to surveillance decisions (Henry & Tator, 2009). For example, remember the case of Trayvon Martin? He was a 17-year old African-American male who walked into a convenience store to buy some Skittles wearing a hoody and got shot (and killed) by a neighbourhood watch volunteer who believed his behaviour “looked suspicious” (Benedictus, 2013). This is of course an extreme, though not isolated, example of racial profiling.
The other major problem with racial profiling is that it often leads to increased rates of criminalization and incarceration.

Question 25

describe and define racial discrimination

Answer 25

Racial discrimination are actions or practices of dominant group members that have a harmful impact on members of a minority groups. Unfortunately, racial discrimination is prevalent in contemporary Canadian society.
s your text explains, racial discrimination has cognitive, affective, and behavioural components (

Question 26

what is the cognitive component?

Answer 26

Thecognitive componentof racial discrimination reflects what we think of member of particular racial and ethnic groups.

Question 27

what is the affective component?

Answer 27

Theaffective componentof racial discrimination affects how we feel about members of particular racial and ethnic groups.

Question 28

what is the behavioral component?

Answer 28

behavioural componentof racial discrimination affects how we act towards members of particular racial and ethnic groups. For example, if we think (cognitive component) white people are ignorant to cultural and ethnic difference, we may feel (affective component) tentative about discussing cultural differences and therefore may remain silent about them (behavioural component).

Question 29

what is de jur discrimination?

Answer 29

De jure discrimination is discrimination coded into the laws and policies of a nation, or an institution. The following are examples of de jure discrimination in Canadian history (that in many cases still affect the represented racial and ethnic groups today).

Question 30

describe the indian act

Answer 30

Indian Act (1876)– The Indian Act gave the federal government the authority to legislate “Indians and Lands Reserved for Indians.” Policy intended to regulate Aboriginal status (i.e., identity), treaty rights, right to vote, health benefits, right to live on reserve, right to inherit family property, right to be buried on reserve with ancestors. While the Indian Act negatively affected all Aboriginal Canadians, Aboriginal women were particularly hard hit through this legislation given that they lost their Aboriginal status if they married a non-Aboriginal man (while the reverse was not true with Aboriginal men who married non-Aboriginal women; they did not lose their Aboriginal status).

Question 31

describe residential schools

Answer 31

Residential Schools (1831)– In 1831 the Canadian government legislated the legal removal of Aboriginal children from their families in order to place them in residential schools, where overt practices of assimilation took place. As your text outlines (pp. 178–180), students were often given a European name, forced to shave their hair, change their clothes, forbidden from speaking their mother tongue, given substandard education, forced to partake in slave labour, and often subjected to verbal, emotional, cultural, and sometimes, sexual violence. This policy lasted for about 150 years of Canadian history and has affected in innumerable ways contemporary Aboriginal communities through the loss of family, cultural, and in some cases, the presence of mental health issues and addictions.

Question 32

describe the chinese exclusion act

Answer 32

The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by the Canadian government in 1923 as a response to the failed head tax policy in generations prior (where Chinese migrant workers who were solicited to help build the Canadian railroad were charged up to $500 to entry to country only to work for less than their white counterparts). The Chinese Exclusion Act banned Chinese immigration to Canada. The Act was eventually repealed in 1947, but for 24 years many Chinese male migrant labourers could not afford to leave Canada and their families (back in China) could not legally immigrate to Canada. During that time, many Chinese families were separated

Question 33

current de facto discrimination

Answer 33

currentmigrant labour practices, which often draw racialized workers desperate for paid work, are a current example of de jure discrimination. Unfortunately, many of the laws that surround migrant labour in Canada render these individuals vulnerable to exploitation. Often workers are forced to live with employers (imagine living with your boss?), and they can be subject to arbitrary discipline, without pay.

Another example of contemporary de jure discrimination is therecent Bill C-51. Known as the Anti-Terrorism Act, it was brought in by the Conservative government in January, 2015. The Act grants unprecedented and (some say) excessive powers to government departments and agencies that are used to target racial and ethnic minority groups suspected in acts of terrorism and has been used to falsely target Muslim people.

Question 34

what is de facto discrimination

Answer 34

De facto discrimination is informal discrimination often normalized through cultural practices (Murray et al., 2012). One example of de facto discrimination is Halloween costumes that stereotype racial and ethnic groups in derogatory and demeaning ways. As a response to this example of de facto discrimination, there was a photo campaign (see images) that draws attention to the problematic forms of cultural appropriation (and racism) taking place.

Question 35

islamophobia as a form of de facto racism

Answer 35

Another example of de facto discrimination is the sometimes rampantIslamophobiathat circulates in Canadian society. Islamophobia is described by the Ontario Human Rights Commission (2015) as “stereotypes, bias or acts of hostility towards individual Muslims or followers of Islam in general. In addition to individual acts of intolerance and racial profiling, Islamophobia leads to viewing Muslims as a greater security threat on an institutional, systemic and societal level.” Following the 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris and Beirut, many Canadian Muslims found themselves victims of acts of violence, racism, and intolerance. As a response to the informal (though still detrimental) assumptions about Muslim people and supporters, the following photo campaign aimed to challenge common manifestations of Islamophobia.

Question 36

describe racial privilege

Answer 36

Privilege, by definition, is generally not something we’re aware we have.
if we look globally today, many cultures don’t have access to fresh water, let alone television, iPads, or automobiles. In comparison to other generations, and other cultures, these items are a privilege, despite not seeming so in this cultural context.
Part of the attempt in discussions about privilege (here, racial privilege) is to become aware of the benefits we’re not always aware we have in an attempt to work against larger structures of oppression.
When talking about racial privilege, we are talking about the often invisible benefits reaped by the dominant racial group. In North America, as in many parts of the world, racial privilege is overwhelmingly experienced by white people. While the white or European race is not the most common race, because of historical colonization and genocide, white people tend to occupy greater amounts of institutionalized power, both nationally and globally

Question 37

analogy for racial privilege and examples

Answer 37

analogy of an invisible backpack that white people have by virtue of their skin colour. She talks about the “backpack” of white privilege as a metaphor for invisible package of unearned assets enjoyed by white people.

• Band-Aids that match the colour of your skin
• Not being frisked, shot, or followed by police
• Moving through airport or border security without being pulled over because of the colour of your skin
• Turning on the television and seeing your race widely represented
• Knowing that your children will receive schooling that attests to the history of their race
• Not being asked where you are from
• Not being asked to speak on behalf of all white people

Question 38

do all white people have privilege?

Answer 38

The short answer is yes, but the long answer is that racial privilege intersects with other forms of privilege, including gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, ability, and class privileges. So a white, middle-class, Christian male will experience more privilege than his white, working-class, Jewish counterpart. A young, white, middle-class female will experience more privilege than her older, black, working-class counterpart.

Question 39

7 types of privilege

Answer 39

Aesthetic, ability, racial,citizenship, sexual orientation, religious, socio-economic, gende

Question 40

interactionist perspective on racism

Answer 40

“interactionist theories attribute prejudice to the processes by which we come to understand different ethnic [and racial] groups”

interactionist scholars also argue that the more intergroup contact we have, the less racial and ethnic discrimination we will hold. The reverse, however, is also true. When racial and ethnic groups are more segregated (like in the era of segregation, or now, through population transfer) then heightened forms of racial discrimination take place. Therefore, for interactionists, a big part in moving away from racial and ethnic discrimination is also to move away fromsegregation,anti-miscegenation laws, andpopulation transfers.

Question 41

conflict theory on racism

Answer 41

Conflict theorists argue that the economic structure of a society perpetuates racism and racialization. In the same way that we see a gender wage gap in this country (as discussed in the last module), we also have a racialized wage gap, where racialized Canadians on average earn between 8 and 20 percent less than their white counterparts

Question 42

what is split market theory?

Answer 42

According to the Split labour market theory here are two types of jobs: 1) higher paid, more secure jobs with the possibility for upward mobility (such as white collar government work); 2) poorly paid, temporary, part-time and provide little opportunity for advancement (such as jobs in sales and service). The primary and secondary labour markets also tend to reflect continued racial inequalities.

Question 43

why do we see a split in the labor market?

Answer 43

The reasons why we see a split in the labour market are a combination of historical colonization and genocide, immigration practices and policies, and systemic racial and ethnic discrimination.
While we see workforces slowly becoming more racially diverse, the split labour market theory is a good example of how race and class intersect to produce racial inequality.

Question 44

functionalist theory on racism

Answer 44

unctionalist theories examine the dynamics between dominant and marginalized groups and specifically look at the ways in which marginalized groups become part of (i.e., assimilate) or resist (i.e., pluralism) dominant group norms and practices. As your text explains,assimilationoccurs when a marginalized racial or ethnic group is absorbed into the culture of the dominant racial or ethnic group (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2016, p. 178). Pluralism, by contrast, is when “cultural differences are maintained and celebrated” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2016, p. 180). Canada, to some degree, is marked by cultural pluralism, and in other ways by cultural assimilation.