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PSYC*1000 DE01 > Midterm #2 > Flashcards

Midterm #2 Flashcards

1
Q

Algorithms

A

problem solving strategies based on a series of rules

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2
Q

Anchoring Effect

A

occurs when an individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep (i.e., anchor) the response within a limited range

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3
Q

Aphasia

A

a language disorder caused by damage to the brain structures that support using and understanding language

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4
Q

availability heuristic

A

entails estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind

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5
Q

belief perseverance

A

occurs when an individual remains committed to their decision or belief even in the face of evidence against it

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6
Q

Broca’s area

A

a region of the left frontal lobe that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words

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7
Q

category

A

a cluster of interrelated concepts

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8
Q

concept

A

the mental representation of an object, event, or idea

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9
Q

confirmation bias

A

occurs when individuals search for (or pay attention to) only evidence that will confirm their beliefs instead of evidence that might confirm them

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10
Q

conjunction fallacy

A

reflects the mistaken belief that finding a specific number in two overlapping categories (I.e., a member of the conjunction of two categories) is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger, general categories

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11
Q

cross-fostered

A

being raised as a member of a family that is not of the same species

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12
Q

exemplar

A

a specific example that best represents a category

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13
Q

fast mapping

A

the ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only a single exposure

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14
Q

functional fixedness

A

occurs when an individual identifies an object or technique that could potentially solve a problem, but can think of only its most obvious function

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15
Q

graded membership

A

the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others

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16
Q

heuristics

A

problem solving strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely solution

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17
Q

language

A

a form of communication that involves the use of spoken, written, or gestural symbols that are combined in a rule based form

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18
Q

linguistic relativity

A

(also called Whorfian Hypothesis) the theory that the language we use determines how we understand (and categorize) the world

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19
Q

mental set

A

a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem

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20
Q

morphemes

A

the smallest meaningful units of language

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21
Q

phonemes

A

the most basic units of speech sounds

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22
Q

pragmatics

A

the study of non-linguistic elements of language use

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23
Q

priming

A

a technique in which previous exposure to a stimulus can influence that individuals later responses, either to the same stimulus or to one that is related to it

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24
Q

problem solving

A

accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear

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25
Q

prototype

A

a mental representation of an average category member

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26
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

making judgements of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category

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27
Q

rule-based categorization

A

categorizing objects or events according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of features

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28
Q

semantic network

A

an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to form a category

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29
Q

semantics

A

the study of how people come to understand meaning from words

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30
Q

syntax

A

the rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences

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31
Q

wernicke’s area

A

the area of the brain most associated with finding the meaning of words

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32
Q

anthropometrics

A

(literally “the measurement of people”) methods of measuring physical and mental variation in humans

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33
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

(Gc) a type of intelligence that draws upon past learning and experience

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34
Q

deviation IQ

A

calculated by comparing a person’s test score with the average score for people of the same age

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35
Q

entity theory

A

the belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult (or impossible) to change

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36
Q

fluid intelligence

A

(Gf) a type of intelligence used in learning new information and solving new problems not based on knowledge the person already possesses

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37
Q

Flynn effect

A

the steady population level increase in intelligence test scores over time

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38
Q

gene knockout studies

A

involve removing a specific gene and comparing the characteristics of animals with and without that gene

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39
Q

general intelligence factor

A

(g) a persons “mental energy”, reflecting spearman”s belief that some peoples brains are simply more “powerful” than others

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40
Q

incremental theory

A

the belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort

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41
Q

intelligence

A

the ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt to or overcome obstacles

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42
Q

intelligence quotient

A

(IQ) a measure of intelligence computed using a standardized test and calculated by taking a person’s mental age, dividing it by their chronological age, and then multiplying by 100

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43
Q

mental age

A

the average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age

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44
Q

multiple intelligences

A

a model claiming that there are eight (now updated to at least nine) different forms of intelligence, each independent from the others

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45
Q

nootropic substances

A

substances that are believed to beneficially affect cognition

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46
Q

person with savant abilities

A

an individual with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas such as music, mathematics, or art

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47
Q

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

A

an intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background

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48
Q

stanford-binet test

A

a test intended to measure innate levels of intelligence

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49
Q

stereotype threat

A

occurs when negative stereotypes about a group cause group members to underperform on ability tests

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50
Q

weschler adult intelligence scale

A

(wais) the most common intelligence test In use today for adolescents and adults

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51
Q

accommodation

A

a creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on experience

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52
Q

alzheimers disease

A

a degenerative and terminal condition resulting in sever damage of the entire brain

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53
Q

assimilation

A

a process whereby people fit new information into the belief systems they already possess

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54
Q

attachment

A

the enduring emotional bond formed between individuals, initially between infants and caregivers

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55
Q

attachment behavioural system

A

focused on meeting our own needs for security

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56
Q

caregiving behavioural system

A

focused on meeting the needs of others

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57
Q

cognitive development

A

the study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespan

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58
Q

cohort effect

A

differences among people that result from being born in different time periods

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59
Q

concrete operational stage

A

(ages 7-11) developmental stage at which children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers

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60
Q

conservation

A

the knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement appearance of that object

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61
Q

conventional morality

A

regards social conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behaviour

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62
Q

core knowledge hypothesis

A

the theory that infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment

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63
Q

cross-sectional design

A

used to measure and compare samples of people at different ages at a given point in time

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64
Q

delaying gratification

A

putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer term goals

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65
Q

dementia

A

mild to sever disruption of mental functioning, memory loss, disorientation, poor judgement, and decision making

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66
Q

developmental psychology

A

the study of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioural characteristics across the lifespan

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67
Q

dishabituation

A

an increase in responsiveness to a habituated stimulus as the result of the presentation of a new stimulus

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68
Q

egocentric

A

seeing the world from one’s own perspective

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69
Q

embryonic stage

A

spans weeks 2-8 of the gestational period, during which time the embryo begins developing major physical structures such as the heart and nervous system, as well as the beginnings of arms, legs, hands, and feet

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70
Q

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

A

abnormalities in mental functioning, growth, and physical development in the offspring of women who use alcohol during pregnancy

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71
Q

fetal stage

A

spans week 8 of the gestational period through birth, during which time the skeletal, organ, and nervous systems become more developed and specialized

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72
Q

formal operational stage

A

(ages 11 - adulthood) the development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking

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73
Q

germinal stage

A

the first phase of prenatal development, which spans from conception to two weeks

74
Q

habituation

A

a decrease in responding with repeated exposure to a stimulus or event

75
Q

identity

A

a clear sense of what kind of person you are, what types of people you belong with, and what roles you should play in society

76
Q

inductive discipline

A

involves explaining the consequences of a Childs actions on other people, activating empathy for others’ feelings

77
Q

introjection

A

the internalization of the conditional regard of significant others

78
Q

longitudinal design

A

follows the development of the same set of individuals through time

79
Q

menarche

A

the onset of menstruation

80
Q

menopause

A

the termination of the menstrual cycle and reproductive ability in women

81
Q

object permanence

A

the ability to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be directly perceived

82
Q

postconventional morality

A

considers rules and laws as relative

83
Q

pre conventional morality

A

characterized by self interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment

84
Q

preoperational stage

A

(ages 2-7) the stage of development devoted to language development, the use of symbols, pretend play, and mastering the concept of conservation

85
Q

preterm infant

A

an infant born earlier than 36 weeks of gestation

86
Q

primary sex traits

A

changes in the body that are part of reproduction

87
Q

reflexes

A

involuntary muscular reactions to specific types of stimulation

88
Q

scaffolding

A

a highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to the learner’s needs

89
Q

secondary sex traits

A

changes in the body that are not part of reproduction

90
Q

self-awareness

A

the ability to recognize one’s individuality

91
Q

sensitive period

A

a window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability

92
Q

sensorimotor stage

A

from birth to 2 years, a time during which infants’ thinking about and exploration of the world are based on immediate sensory and motor experiences

93
Q

socioemotional selectivity theory

A

describes how older people have learned to select for themselves more positive and nourishing experiences

94
Q

spermarche

A

during puberty, a male’s first ejaculation of sperm

95
Q

strange situation test

A

a way of measuring infant attachment by observing how infants behave when exposed to different experiences that involve anxiety and comfort

96
Q

synaptic pruning

A

the loss of weak nerve cell connections

97
Q

synaptogenesis

A

the forming of new synaptic connections

98
Q

teratogens

A

substances, such as drugs or environmental toxins, that impair the process of fetal development

99
Q

theory of mind

A

the ability to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that may be different from ones own

100
Q

zone of proximal development

A

the concept that development is ideal when children attempt skills and activities that are just beyond what they can do alone, but they have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress

101
Q

zygote

A

the initial cell formed when the nuclei of egg and sperm fuse

102
Q

amygdala

A

a group of nuclei in the medial portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain that facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions

103
Q

achievement motivation

A

the drive to perform at high levels and to accomplish significant goals

104
Q

allostasis

A

motivation is not only influenced by current needs, but also by the anticipation of future needs

105
Q

amotivational

A

a feeling of having little or no motivation to perform a behaviour

106
Q

anorexia nervosa

A

an eating disorder that involves (1) self-starvation, (2) intense fear of weight gain and dissatisfaction with one’s body, and (3) denial of the serious consequences of severely low weight

107
Q

approach goal

A

an eating disorder that involves (1) self-starvation, (2) intense fear of weight gain and dissatisfaction with one’s body, and (3) denial of the serious consequences of severely low weight

108
Q

avoidance goal

A

an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome such as shame, embarrassment, losing money, or feeling emotional pain

109
Q

bulimia nervosa

A

an eating disorder that is characterized by periods of food deprivation, binge-eating, and purging

110
Q

cannon-bard theory of emotion

A

the brain interprets a situation and generates subjective emotional feelings, and these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body

111
Q

companionate love

A

related to tenderness, and to the affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person

112
Q

display rules

A

the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it is appropriate to show a certain emotion

113
Q

drive

A

a biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek out what is needed, such as food or water

114
Q

emotion

A

a behaviour with the following three components: (a) a subjective thought and/or experience with (b) accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal and (c) an observable behavioural expression (e.g., an emotional facial expression or changes in muscle tension)

115
Q

emotional dialects

A

variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed

116
Q

extrinsic motivation

A

(or a performance motive) motivation geared toward gaining rewards or public recognition, or avoiding embarrassment

117
Q

facial feedback hypothesis

A

our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states

118
Q

gender roles

A

the accepted attitudes and behaviours of males and females in a given society

119
Q

glucose

A

a sugar that serves as a primary energy source for the brain and the rest of the body

120
Q

homeostasis

A

the body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment

121
Q

hypothalamus

A

a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems

122
Q

incentives

A

the stimuli we seek out in order to reduce drives

123
Q

intersexual selection

A

a situation in which members of one sex select a mating partner based on their desirable traits

124
Q

intrasexual selection

A

a situation in which members of the same sex compete in order to win the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex

125
Q

intrinsic motivation

A

(or mastery motive) the process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours and overcome challenges (e.g., a genuine desire to master a task rather than being motivated by a reward)

126
Q

James-lange theory of emotion

A

our physiological reactions to stimuli (e.g., a racing heart) precede the emotional experience (e.g., the fear)

127
Q

libido

A

the motivation for sexual activity and pleasure

128
Q

motivation

A

concerns the physiological and psychological processes underlying the initiation of behaviours that direct organisms toward specific goals

129
Q

need to belong

A

the motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for each person’s well-being

130
Q

obesity

A

a disorder of positive energy balance, in which energy intake exceeds energy expenditure

131
Q

oxytocin

A

a hormone involved in reproduction, childbirth, and social bonding

132
Q

passionate love

A

associated with a physical and emotional longing for the other person

133
Q

refractory period (sexual response cycle)

A

a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible

134
Q

satiation

A

the point in a meal when we are no longer motivated to eat

135
Q

self-actualization

A

the point at which a person reaches their full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being

136
Q

self-determination theory

A

an individual’s ability to achieve their goals and attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which they are in control of the behaviours necessary to achieve those goals

137
Q

self-efficacy

A

an individual’s confidence that they can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem

138
Q

sex guilt

A

negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriate sexual behaviour

139
Q

sexual orientation

A

the consistent preference for sexual relations with members of the opposite sex, same sex, or either sex

140
Q

sexual response cycle

A

the phases of physiological change during sexual activity, which comprises four primary stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

141
Q

sexual scripts

A

the set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females

142
Q

terror management theory

A

(TMT) a psychological perspective asserting that the human fear of mortality motivates behaviour, particularly behaviours that preserve self-esteem and our sense of belonging

143
Q

testosterone

A

(1) a hormone that serves multiple functions, including driving physical and sexual development over the long term (2) a hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour

144
Q

transgender

A

individuals who experience a mismatch between the gender that they identify with and their biological sex

145
Q

two factor theory

A

patterns of physical arousal and the cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of our emotional experiences

146
Q

unit bias

A

the tendency to assume that the unit of sale or portioning is an appropriate amount to consume

147
Q

analytical psychology

A

focuses on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development

148
Q

archetypes

A

images and symbols that reflect common patterns of experience across all cultures

149
Q

arousal theory of extraversion

A

extraversion is determined by people’s threshold for arousal

150
Q

ascending reticular activating system

A

(ARAS) plays a central role in controlling the arousal response

151
Q

behavioural activation system

A

(BAS) a “GO” system, arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals

152
Q

behavioural inhibition system

A

(BIS) a “danger” system, motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishments or other negative outcomes

153
Q

collective unconscious

A

a separate, non-personal realm of the unconscious that holds the collective memories and mythologies of humankind, stretching deep into our ancestral past

154
Q

conscious mind

A

your current awareness, containing everything you are aware of right now

155
Q

dark triad

A

three traits—Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism—that describe a person who is socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest, and likely to commit harm in general

156
Q

defence mechanisms

A

unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce or avoid anxiety

157
Q

ego

A

(according to Freud) the decision maker, frequently under tension, trying to reconcile the opposing urges of the id and superego

158
Q

factor analysis

A

(1) a statistical technique that examines correlations between variables to find clusters of related variables, or “factors”; (2) in personality analysis, grouping items that people respond to similarly; for instance, the terms friendly and warm

159
Q

five factor model

A

(FFM) a trait-based theory of personality based on the finding that personality can be described using five major dimensions

160
Q

fixation

A

becoming preoccupied with obtaining the pleasure associated with a particular Freudian stage as a result of not being able to adequately regulate oneself and satisfy needs at that stage

161
Q

genome wide association study

A

involves examining the DNA of the entire genome of individuals and determining which genetic variants are associated with a particular trait (including diseases)

162
Q

HEXACO model of personality

A

a six-factor theory that generally replicates the factors of the Five Factor Model and adds one additional factor: Honesty–Humility

163
Q

humorism

A

explained both physical illnesses and disorders of personality as resulting from imbalances in key fluids in the body

164
Q

id

A

(according to Freud) a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression

165
Q

idiographic approach

A

creating detailed descriptions of a specific person’s unique personality characteristics

166
Q

inferiority complex

A

the struggle many people have with feelings of inferiority, which stem from experiences of helplessness and powerlessness during childhood

167
Q

nomothetic approach

A

examines personality in large groups of people, with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure

168
Q

personality

A

a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time and situations

169
Q

personality trait

A

a specific psychological characteristic that makes up part of a person’s personality

170
Q

personal unconscious

A

a vast repository of experiences and patterns that are absorbed during the person’s life

171
Q

person-centred perspective

A

founded on the assumption that people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally

172
Q

phrenology

A

the theory that personality characteristics could be assessed by carefully measuring the outer skull

173
Q

projective tests

A

personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desires or conflicts

174
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

interactions between behaviour, internal (personal) factors, and external (situational) factors, all of which mutually influence each other

175
Q

response styles

A

characteristic ways of responding to questions

176
Q

right-wing authoritarianism

A

(RWA) a problematic set of personality characteristics that also predisposes people to certain types of violent or antisocial tendencies: (1) obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society; (2) supporting aggression against those who dissent or differ from the established social order; and (3) believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order

177
Q

rorschach inkblot test

A

a test in which people are asked to describe what they see on an inkblot, and psychologists interpret this description using a standardized scoring and interpretation method

178
Q

self-actualization

A

the point at which a person reaches their full potential as a creative, deep-thinking, and accepting human being

179
Q

state

A

a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour

180
Q

superego

A

(according to Freud) comprised of our values and moral standards

181
Q

thematic apperception test

A

(TAT) a test in which respondents are asked to tell stories about ambiguous pictures involving various interpersonal situations

182
Q

unconscious mind

A

a vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your consciousness, operating without your conscious endorsement or will to influence and guide your behaviours

PSYC*1000 DE01 (2 decks)

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