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histo 184 > mid 1 > Flashcards

mid 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is histology 3 parts

A

-cience dealing with the
microscopic identification of
cells and tissues

-Involves how cells and tissues
are organized within the body

-Part of the anatomical
pathology department

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2
Q

the order of structures beginning with cells 4 parts

A

cells
tissue
organ
systems

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3
Q

what are cells

A

building blocks of all living things

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4
Q

what are tissue

A

group of similar cells with organized arrangement and a common function

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5
Q

organ is

A

a distinct group of tissue that perform specific funcitions

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6
Q

systmes are

A

groups of organs wiht similar roles

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7
Q

4 main tissues types

A

epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous

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8
Q

epithelium does what mostly 3

A

covering, lining for protection
and forms glands

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9
Q

connective does wat

A

connecting and supporting organs
Includes blood and bone
immunity
energy storage

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10
Q

muscle is for

A

Contractile for movement

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11
Q

Nervous does wat

A

Conducts waves of excitation for control of body activities

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12
Q

simple tissue , 2 examples

A

All cells are alike
adipose = made from adipocytes
endothelium = squamous cell

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13
Q

compound tissues , 1 ex

A

most organs
Contains several different cells with various functions
But remains a distinct tissue
i.e., brain tissue = nerve cells, support cells, immune cells, epithelial cells

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14
Q

how thinly are things cut

A

5 um

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15
Q

3 ways things can be cut

A

cross
oblique
longitudinal

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16
Q

does the epithelium cover and line the entire body

A

yas

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17
Q

how are epithelial cells described in terms of sheets

A

continuous sheet of cells/ connective

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18
Q

type of epithelial cells depend on 2 things

A

location
function

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19
Q

Keratinized stratified squamous are found where (1)

A

skin, epidermis

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20
Q

Simple squamous are found where (1)

A

lung

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21
Q

epithelium that is modified to form secretory cells is called

A

Glandular epithelium

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22
Q

Epithelial cells themselves can also have modifications for different functional needs, 2 examples

A

mirovilli
cilia

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23
Q

1/5 features common to all epithelial
tissue

cell shape is -
and they do not posses any

A

regular
extensive cytoplasmic processes

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24
Q

2/5 features common to all epithelial
tissue

cells fit together with very little -

A

intercellular material (ground substance)

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25
Q

3/5 features common to all epithelial
tissue

cells are bound to one anther by-
3 types

A

junctions

gap
adhering
tight

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26
Q

gap junctions are

A

-Channel proteins connecting cell membranes, allowing materials to pass freely through channels
-Function to allow communication between cells

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27
Q

transmembrane channels are called -
and they formed from

A

connexons
6 transmembrane proteins called connexins

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28
Q

Anchoring junctions (1 ex)

A

fasten cells together or to extracellular material

desmosomes

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29
Q

Continuous adhering junctions are called

A

“Belt” junctions – Zonula adherens

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30
Q

spot adhering junctions are

A

Spot shaped rather than belt shaped - Desmosome

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31
Q

tight junctions are x and prevent x , located x

A

-Protein molecules in adjacent cell membranes that fuse together like a zipper

-Prevents leakage of fluids through tissue

-Located immediately below the apical surface

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32
Q

4/5 features common to all epithelial
tissue

Epithelium lacks a-
and
is nourished by-

A
  • vascular supply

-diffusion from the underlying capillary beds through the
basement membrane

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33
Q

5/5 features common to all epithelial
tissue

Epithelial cells are constantly exposed
to x
this results in x
and is balanced by x

A

-chemical and physical change
-Results in a loss of cells
-a regeneration
of cells from the basal layer (deepest layer)

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34
Q

epithelial membrane Specializations 4 types

A

keratin
microvilli
cilia
stereocilia

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35
Q

keratin does what

A

protects

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36
Q

microvilli does what

A

increase surface area

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37
Q

cilia does what

A

moves things along

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38
Q

stereocilia are x
found in the x and x
and do 2 things

A

-are long, slender, non-motile microvilli
-epididymis and middle ear

-Resorb degenerated sperm, excess fluid (epididymis)
-Respond to fluid motion for hearing and balance (middle ear)

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39
Q

Morphologic Classification of
Epithelium depend on 3 things

A

u Cell arrangement
u Cell shape
u Specialization of the cell surface

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40
Q

Stratified epithelium named according to appearance of what

A

apical (top) layer

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41
Q

3 types of arrangments

A

simple
pseudostratified
stratified

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42
Q

3 cell shapes

A

squamous
cuboidal columnar

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43
Q

Simple Epithelium lines surfaces involved in 2 parts

A

secretion or absorption

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44
Q

simple- each cells touches basement ?

A

yas

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45
Q

is simple 1 later of cells

A

yas

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46
Q

stratified epi
how many cell layers
does it touch membrane

A

more than one
only basal touches membrane

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47
Q

stratified found in 3 areas where these things happen

A

wear & tear
secretion
expansion

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48
Q

Pseudostratified Epi

contact with basement
how many layers

A

all contact basement but not all surface
single layer that looks like more

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49
Q

pseudostratified found where -1

A

respiratory tract

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50
Q

Simple Squamous Epi
structure

Where is nucleus located

A

u One layer thick
u Thin, flattened cells
u Round central nucleus that bulges from the
cytoplasm

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51
Q

Simple Squamous Epi
3 functions

A

Diffusion gas exchange
filtration
lining

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52
Q

simple squamous locations 4

A

u Lung (alveoli)
u Kidneys (Loop of Henle)
u Blood vessels and Lymphatics (called endothelium)
u Lining body cavities (called mesothelium)

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53
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epi
strucuture

A

u One layer thick
u Cells are square
u Central nuclei

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54
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epi function 2

A

u Lines ducts and glands
u Covers

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55
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epi locations 4

A

u Ducts
u Kidney (tubules)
u Thyroid gland (follicles)
u Covering of ovary

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56
Q

Simple Columnar Epi strucuture

A

u One cell layer thick
u Tall, column-shaped
u Cilia or microvilli may be present
u Nuclei rounded and basally located

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57
Q

Simple Columnar Epi
function 2

A

u Secrete mucin
u Absorption

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58
Q

Simple Columnar Epi
location 3

A

u Digestive Tract (Stomach, gallbladder, intestine)
u Cervix
u Fallopian Tube

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59
Q

Pseudostratified structure

What cells are often present within

A

u All cells rest on basement membrane
u Not all cells reach the surface
u Crowded/Distorted
u Most cells ciliated
u Goblet cells present

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60
Q

goblet cells are most often in what epithelium

A

pseudostratified

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61
Q

1 function of pseudo

A

lining

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62
Q

2 location of pseudo

A

u Upper airways (pharynx, trachea, bronchi)
u Urethra

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63
Q

Stratified Squamous Epi
srucuture

A

u Several layers of cells
u Deepest layer contacts basement membrane
u Cell division in basal layer
u May or may not have keratin

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64
Q

Stratified Squamous Epi
function 1

A

Protection in areas of wear & tear

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65
Q

Stratified Squamous Epi
Location 4

A

u Skin (epidermis) – keratinized
u Upper GI (mouth, pharynx, esophagus) - nonkeratinized
u Vagina – nonkeratinized
u Anus – nonkeratinized

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66
Q

Stratified Cuboidal
located 2

A

ducts of sweat glands,
salivary glands

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67
Q

Stratified Columnar
located in 1

A

large excretory ducts

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68
Q

Transitional strucuture

A

u Basal layer is low columnar/cuboidal
u Several layers above – polyhedral
u Surface cells are dome shaped (or
flattened when distended

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69
Q

transitional functions 3 thank of location

A

Stretchable, leak proof, resistant

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70
Q

transitional location 1 system

A

Urinary system (ureters, bladder)

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71
Q

review chart in the beginning

A
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72
Q

Glandular Epithelium Exocrine Glands
-secrete onto

A

-a duct or a free surface

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73
Q

Glandular Epithelium Exocrine Glands

-divided into 2 types

A
  1. Simple
    u One unbranched duct
  2. Compound
    u Branched duct system
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74
Q

Glandular Epithelium Exocrine Glands
-shapes can vary 2:

A

u Tubular – straight or coiled tubes
u Acinar – rounded pockets in epithelial surface

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75
Q

Glandular Epithelium Exocrine secretions can be 3

A

u Serous: Watery secretion with enzymes
u Mucus: Carbohydrate/protein complex that lubricates and protects epithelium
u Mixed: Combination of both

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76
Q

Glandular Epithelium Endocrine Glands

secrete what inoto what

A

Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream

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77
Q

what are endocrine glands associated with

A

capillaries

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78
Q

do endocrine (hormone )glands have ducts

A

neur

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79
Q

what are endocrine glands regulated by

A

negative feed back

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80
Q

2 types of endocrine glands

Ways of storing both

A

u Clump and cord (random clustering, secretion stored intracellularly)
u Follicle (secrete into a sac/follicle and stored extracellularly

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81
Q

Support tissue jobs / roles other than connect, long list

A

– Exchanges nutrients/wastes between tissues and circulatory system
– Acts as “packing material” between cells/tissues/organs
– Forms organ capsules
– Provides physical support
– Stores energy
– Defense against pathogens
– Tissue repair
– Production of extracellular matrix

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82
Q

support tissues is derived from what and what is it

A

-embryonal mesenchyme :Loose cells embedded in a mesh of proteins and fluid (the extracellular matrix)

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83
Q

Two main components of support tissue same as those in mesenchyme

A

Cells
Extracellular material (fibers and ground substance)

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84
Q

Cells of Support Tissue
3 types based on function: 3 types of functions

A
  1. Synthesis and maintenance of extracellular material
  2. Storage and metabolism of fats
  3. Defense and immune function
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85
Q

One of the most important cells in connective tissue are called

A

fibroblasts

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86
Q

do fibroblasts have oval nucleuses with nucleolus , and is it acitve or inactive

A

yes has both and therfore acitve

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87
Q

what do fibroblast secrete :4

A

collagen, elastic, reticular fibres, extracellular matrix

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88
Q

what are fibroblasts responsible for 1

A

tissue repair

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89
Q

what are fibrocyte

A

inactive form but can return to the active blast state if
require

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90
Q

Extracellular Material 2 jobs

A

Interconnects and nourishes tissues
Supports tissues by distributing fibrous proteins

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91
Q

2 components of extracellular material

A

ground substance
fibers

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92
Q

main typee of fibres 3

A

collagen
elastin
reticulin

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93
Q

Ground Substance

Occupies the spaces between- 2 things
Produced by-

A

-cells and capillaries
-fibroblasts

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94
Q

ground subs description , which allows for

A

-Jelly-like, amorphous, transparent

-flexibility and movement of metabolites
-Can hold fluid, and can exchange nutrients/oxygen/waste products
between cells and capillaries

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95
Q

in bone the ground substance is

A

calcified, has fibers embeded within substance

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96
Q

in blood the ground substance is

A

fluid, has no fibers

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97
Q

Amount of fluid in ground substance varies depending on

A

nature and location

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98
Q

Molecular composition of ground substance

A

acidic CHO groups (carb) + protein

– Glycosaminoglycans
– Proteoglycans
glycoproteins

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99
Q

Two main types of fibres in the ground substance

A

collagen
elastin

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100
Q

Fibres are differentiated by their 2

A

r appearance and biochemical
characteristics

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101
Q

fibers are usually produced by
- and provide
- made up of

A

fibroblasts

tissue support

complex proteins

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102
Q

how many types of collagen are there

A

28 at least

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103
Q

collagen structure

branch or no?
CHO components?
abundancy ?

A

– White, non-branching fibres
– Most abundant body protein
– Small CHO component

104
Q

collagen function 2

A

Strength and protection

105
Q

collagen locations 6

A

– Tendons, ligaments
– Skin (dermis)
– Cartilage
– Bone
– Meninges
– Sheaths/Capsules

106
Q

elastic fibers sturcuture variety 3

A

– Single fibres
– Branching network of fibres
– Fenestrated sheets (have openings)

107
Q

are elastic fibers thiner than collagen

A

yas

108
Q

what are elastic fibers produced by, other than fibroblasts In the blood vessels

A

smooth muscle cells of
blood vessels

109
Q

function of elastic fibers

A

stretch and recoil

110
Q

location of elastic fibers 3

A

– Skin (dermis)
– Respiratory system (lungs)
– Blood vessels

111
Q

reticuline is what type number of collagen

A

3

112
Q

strucutre of reticulin

Composed of 2

A

– Fine fibrils
– Composed of CHO/protein

113
Q

function of reticulin

Stroma

A

– Stroma (give structure to organs) of highly cellular organs for support

114
Q

location of reticulin

Long list

A

Bone marrow
Kidney
Liver
Spleen
Lymphoid tissue
Around blood vessel
basement membrane

115
Q

do reticulin fibers require a special stain

A

yes

116
Q

basement memrbane strcuture 2 parts

A

3 layers of collagen and reticulin
Thin sheet-like membrane

117
Q

basement fucntion

A

– Functional and nutritional support
– Mechanism to anchor cells
– Permeability barrier in kidney glomeruli
– Supplies nutrients to epithelium and removes waste

118
Q

basement mebrane location, 3

A

– Under epithelium
– Around CNS, muscle cells

119
Q

does a basement memrne require special stain

A

yes

120
Q

Fibrocollagenous Tissue

develops from
and
Three arrangements

A
  • mesenchyme
    1. Dense regular
    2. Dense irregular
    3. Loose irregular
121
Q

Dense Regular Connective Tissue
structure

Type of blood supply

A

– Thick bundles of collagen arranged in one plane
– Often encased in a sheath
– Poor blood supply, slow to heal

122
Q

Dense Regular
function: 4

A

– Forms tendons (bone to muscle) and ligaments (bone to bone)
– Limits motion and supports

123
Q

Dense Regular
location 3

A

tendons
ligaments
capsules

124
Q

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
structure

What cells may be within

A

• Lots of collagen fibres, little ground substance

• Collagen fibres thick and arranged in all directions

• Fibrocytes may be present

125
Q

Dense Irregular
function

A

Strength and mechanical support

126
Q

Dense Irregular
location

3

A

– Nerve and blood vessel sheaths
– Skin

127
Q

Loose Irregular (Areolar) Connective Tissue
structure

What 2 cells
2 fibres

4 other common cells

A

– Lots of extracellular matrix with some collagen and elastin fibres
– Fibroblasts and fibrocytes widely scattered
– Also contains some macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes and fat
cells

128
Q

Loose Irregular (Areolar)
function

A

Support and connection
– Nourishment
– Allows movement

129
Q

Loose Irregular (Areolar)
location

A

Digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems (lamina propria)

130
Q

adipose tissue strucutre made of x originating from x

Simple or compound ?

A

Composed of adipocytes from mesenchyme

131
Q

adipose tissue 2 main types

A

white and brown

132
Q

white adipose

Membrane bound?
What is in the rim
Wheee is the nucleus
Does it have a blood supply ?

A

– Each adipocyte has a large lipid droplet (not membrane bound)
– Cytoplasm forms a thin rim around the cell – organelles located here
– Nucleus also compressed to side
– Chicken wire appearance with good blood supply
– Serves as energy storage, heat insulator, cushion

133
Q

brown adipose

How much is in adults
Where is it found in adults
More and less of what when compared to white
Brown due to

A

– Only small amounts in adults (around adrenal and large blood vessels in
retroperitoneum)
– Contain many small lipid droplets (also not membrane bound)
– Much more cytoplasm throughout the cells
– Brown colour due to mitochondria
round ecentric nucleus

134
Q

Cartilage and Bone are specialized conenective tissue that is part of which system, which one is rigid

A

skeletal

– Cartilage = semi-rigid support
– Bone = rigid support

135
Q

cartilage 3 types and they differ based on

Which types of collagens are they

Remember Reticulin fibre was cartilage type 3

A

amount of elastic and collagen in the matrix

  1. Hyaline (Type 2 collagen)
  2. Fibrocartilage (Type 1 and 2 collagen in alternating layers)
  3. Elastic cartilage (Type 2 collagen and elastic fibres)
136
Q

cartilage is composed of 3 things

2 specific cells,
What is the covering callled

A
  1. Cells (chondrocytes and chondroblasts)
  2. Ground substance (extracellular matrix)
  3. Outer covering (perichondrium)
137
Q

Chondroblasts

Make 2 things
Found where

A

– Make ground substance and extracellular fibres (elastic, collagen)
– Located in the outer area of the cartilage near the perichondrium

138
Q

Chondrocytes

What is it
Located in what and where
Job

A

– Mature chondroblasts trapped in the matrix
– Located in inner area of the cartilage
– In spaces called lacunae – usually in groups
– Maintain the matrix

139
Q

Cartilage -Matrix

What are the Fibers there
Composed of 2 parts

A

– Amorphous gel composed mostly of chondroitin sulfate and
hyaluronic acid
– Strong enough to bear weight but liquid enough to allow passage
of materials to nourish the cells
– Contains both elastic and collagen fibers

140
Q

Cartilage -Perichondrium (outer covering) compose of what type of tissue

A

dense irregular connective tissue

141
Q

Bone

Type of support tissue

Always undergoes 2 things

A

– Calcified support tissue (supports as well as stores calcium)
– Always undergoing growth and re-absorption

142
Q

bone compostiion 3

Name the cells
Cover name

A
  1. Cells (osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts)
  2. Extracellular matrix
  3. Outer covering (periosteum)
143
Q

3 cells of the bone

A

working together to form, maintain, and re-absorb bone

osteoblasts
osteocytes
osteoclasts

144
Q

Osteoblasts

2 main jobs
Where are they found

A

– Synthesize osteoid (bone matrix) that is calcified to form bone
– Found on free surfaces of bone next to periosteum
– Produce processes to communicate with capillaries and other osteoblasts

145
Q

osteocytes

What are they
Where are they found
How are they connected
Job 1

A

– Mature bone cells embedded in lacunae in matrix
– Connected to each other and capillaries by canaliculi
– Maintain bone

146
Q

osteoclasts

What are they btween
Responsible for
Often seen in depressions called

A

– Multinucleated giant cells between osteoblasts on free surface of bone
– Responsible for bone resorption
– Often seen in depressions called Howship’s Lacunae

147
Q

bone matric

What is it
Made all together 2 things and know as

A

– Osteoid made hard by mineralization with calcium and phosphate hydroxides known as calcium hydroxyapatite

148
Q

Bone –
Periosteum

Composed of what type of tissues ?

A

– Composed of dense irregular connective tissue (just like cartilage!

149
Q

Bone -
Architecture

basic strucuture if inside and outside

A

compact (cortical) bone on the outside
and spongy (trabecular) bone `on the inside

150
Q

Trabecular bone

Made with x and either z or y

Z is
And y produces

A

formed with
trabeculae and spaces
between them filled with
either yellow marrow (mainly
adipose) or red marrow
(produces blood cells)

151
Q

Compact bone

Type of ring arrangement
Central canal is called

A

regular ring arrangements around a central (Haversian) canal –called a Haversian system/Osteon

152
Q

compact long bone

2 type of canals running in which direction
One canal name is x and it contains what
The other one was central and it was called

A

– canal runs
longitudinally, lateral
(Volkmann’s) canals also
present that contain that
blood supply

153
Q

compact bone haversian canal

Contains 3 things

A

contains
artery, vein, nerve

154
Q

compact bone Canaliculi

A

run from
Haversian canal between
lamellae to nourish bone
cells

155
Q

cpmpact bone Osteocytes

Found where

A

enclosed in
lacunae (just like cartilage )

156
Q

Contraction controlled by 2

A

CNS and hormones

157
Q

Contraction occurs due to the interaction with

A

actin and myosin

158
Q

pericyte in capillary are what type of cells, 2

A

single cells contractile cells

159
Q

Four groups of contractile cells

A

muscle
myoepithelial
myofibroblasts
pericytes

160
Q

muscle cells 3 types

A

(skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

161
Q

myoepithelial cells

Associated with and aid to

A

Associated with glands, aid to discharge glands secretory product

162
Q

Myofibroblasts

What are they and involved with

A

n Fibroblasts (still secrete collagen) with ability to contract
n Involved in wound repair

163
Q

Pericytes

Assist with x through x and y

A

Thought to assist in movement of blood
through capillaries and venules that can’t contract themselves

164
Q

skeletal muscle structure\

Shape cells
Number of nuclei
Where are the nuclei
Units are called
Striation ?
Branching ?
Voluntary ?
Blood supply good or bad?
May join together to form x

A

Long, cylindrical cells
Multiple nuclei
Peripheral nuclei
Contain actin and myosin in contractile
units called sarcomeres
Striated
Non-branching
Voluntary
Good blood supply
Cells may join together to form larger
muscle bundles

165
Q

skeletal muscle function

Based on what theory
Controlled by what type of nerves

A

Contraction (based on sliding filament theory)
Controlled by large motor nerves

166
Q

skeletal muscle location\
5

A

Arms and legs
¤ Torso
¤ Tongue
¤ Esophagus

167
Q

Cardiac Muscle - Structure

Cell shape length
Number of nuclei
Where are the nuclei
Striated ?
Branching ?
Voluntary ?
Blood supply ?
Contain 2 things that allow for rapid impulses transmission

Are sacromeres present ?

A

Shorter (than skeletal) cylindrical cells
Single nuclei*
central nuclei *
contains actin and myosin
striated
branching and anastomosing*
involuntary, self-excitatory *
good blood suply
contain intercalated discs, and junction that alow for rapid impulse transmission

Yes. To sacromeres

168
Q

cardiac function 1

A

contract the heart muscle

169
Q

cardiac location 1

A

myocardium of heart

170
Q

Smooth Muscle - Structure

Cell shape
Number of nuclei
Location of nuclei
Branching ?
Voluntary ?
Actin and myosin sacromeres?

A

small spindle shaped *
single nucleus *
central nuclei *
actin and myosin but nor in sacromeres as others
smooth *
non branching *
involuntary

171
Q

Smooth Muscle - function

Eat tubes pee like child

A

Movement of material in digestive tract
¤ Contraction of hollow tubular organs
¤ Urinary system contraction
¤ Pupil dilation
¤ Baby delivery

172
Q

Smooth Muscle location

A

¤ Intestine
¤ Bladder
¤ Uterus
¤ Respiratory Tract
¤ Blood vessels
¤ Eye

173
Q

What is a syncytium?

A

Multinucleated cell resulting from multiple cell fusions of
uninuclear cells
-Large skeletal muscle fibres are made by the fusion of
thousands of individual muscle cells.
-Cardiac not a true syncytium because the cells are not long and multinucleated, but act as a functional group for coordinated and rapid movement

174
Q

Growth and Regeneration in the skeletal

A

Skeletal
-Can’t divide
¤ Have some reserve cells that can be a source of myoblasts that can fuse to form a new skeletal fibre
¤ Can increase in size (hypertrophy) but not increase in number

175
Q

Growth and Regeneration in the cardiac

A

Capable of hypertrophy (size) but not division

176
Q

Growth and Regeneration in the smooth

Hyperplasia vs hypertrophy
Can be generated from x in blood vessels

A

¤ Also capable of hypertrophy but can also increase in number
(hyperplasia)
¤ Can be generated from a pericyte in small blood vessels

177
Q

central nervous system aspects 2 main portion

A

brain
spinal cord

-integrates sensory information and initiates a response

178
Q

peripheral nervous system

2 parts

A

Cranial nerves & Spinal nerves

  • Run between the CNS and the sensory organs and muscles
179
Q

Cell bodies of PNS are either in the x or y

A

CNS or in ganglia in peripheral sites

180
Q

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

A
  • Receive stimuli from inside and outside of the body
  • Transmit action potentials between neurons and to the target organ
  • Neurons maintain the cells for transmission
  • Ions for action potentials, resting membrane potential
  • Produce neurotransmitters
181
Q

neuron cell body

perikaryon?
Nissl substance ?
Owl eye appearance is due to what structure

A
  • Large round nucleus with nucleolus,
    giving an “owl’s eye” appearance
  • Cytoplasm called perikaryon
  • Contains rRNA that is called
    Nissl substance
182
Q

neuron axon

A
  • Process that conducts impulses away from
    the cell body
  • Arises at the cell body in the axon hillock
  • Ends at terminal boutons (synaptic
    terminals in this image)
  • May be myelinated/unmyelinated
  • Neurotransmitters produced in neuron
    sent down to vesicles via axon
183
Q

dendrites

A

• Site of information input to neurons

• Synapse with terminal boutons of axons and dendrites of other neurons or end in specialized sensory receptors

184
Q

3 TYPES OF NEURONS

X-polar

A
  • Multipolar neurons – Large -Motor neurons
  • Bipolar neurons – Small- One dendrite, one axon- Sight, smell, balance
  • Unipolar (pseudounipolar) : Dendrite connects to sensory process, axon takes information to CNS
185
Q

brain support cells (neuroglia) 4 types

A
  1. Oligodendrocytes
  2. Astrocytes
  3. Microglia
  4. Ependymal cells
186
Q

brain support cells Oligodendrocyte

A
  • Wrap around axons to form myelin in
    the CNS
  • Myelin speeds up impulse transmission
  • Breaks in the myelin sheath (nodes of
    Ranvier) allow for saltatory conduction
187
Q

brain support cells astrocytes

A

• Star-shaped with many processes, some processes end on capillaries

• Provide mechanical support

• Mediate nutrient exchange

• Make blood brain barrier

• Repair CNS

188
Q

brain support cells microglia

A
  • Small cells, rod-shaped nuclei
  • Long, branching processes
  • Immune cells of CNS with some
    phagocytic capabilities
  • Some antigen-sensing capabilities
189
Q

brain support cells ependymal cells

A
  • Form simple epithelial lining of the
    brain ventricles and the central canal of
    the spinal cord
  • Cuboidal/low columnar in shape
  • Some cilia present
  • No basement membrane
190
Q

Note on difficulty of identification

A
  • The cytoplasmic processes all blend together and form the neuropil of the
    brain tissue
  • They can be demonstrated by metallic impregnation or immunohistochemistry
191
Q

White matter

Mainnly bundles of
White due to
No
X cells present

A
  • Mainly bundles of heavily myelinated axons
  • White due to lipid content of myelin
  • No neuron cell bodies
  • Glial cells present
192
Q

Grey matter

Contains what

Neuropil

A
  • Contains neuron cell bodies and dendrites and little myelin
  • Processes or neurons and glial cells appear as neuropil that provides cell support
193
Q

matters in the brain

A

In brain – white matter is central core, grey matter surrounds

194
Q

matter in spinal cord

A

grey matter is central core, white matter surrounds

195
Q

CEREBRUM

x- portion of the brain
amount of hepispheres
surface texture
meninges
gyri
sulci
site of what type of thinking

A
  • Superior portion of the brain
  • Extends from anterior to posterior part
    of brain
  • Has two cerebral hemispheres
  • Irregular surface to increase surface
    area
  • Elevations are gyri and depressions are
    sulci
  • Surfaces covered with meninges (layers of brain)
  • Outer layer (cerebral cortex) = grey matter
  • Inner layer = white matter
  • Site of sensory and motor analysis and integration
  • Site of “higher thinking”
196
Q

CEREBELLUM

how many hepispheres
type of surface

A
  • Posterior and inferior to the
    cerebrum
  • Two hemispheres
  • Irregular surface area with deep
    sulci
  • Outer layer (cerebellar cortex) =
    grey matter
197
Q

cerebellum 2 divisiona of grey mater

A

Outer molecular layer:
* Non-myelinated nerve fibres
* Few cell bodies
* Scanty glial cells
* Stains pale pink on H&E with few
purple nuclei

Inner granular layer
* Stains deep purple due to many nuclei
of small neurons

198
Q

cerebellum Purkinje cells

A
  • Purkinje cells lie between two layers of grey matter and are large neurons
  • White matter (myelinated fibres) forms inner core
  • Site of coordination of muscular activitiy and maintenance of posture and
    equilibrium
199
Q

SPINAL CORD

In grey matter of anterior horns, see large

Tracts x run longitudinally along the length of the spinal
cord

A
  • Outer layer is white matter, inner layer (butterfly shape) is grey matter
  • Best viewed in cross section
  • Central canal lined by ependymal cells and has a small lumen
  • In grey matter of anterior horns, see large motor neuron cell bodies with their
    “owl’s eye” nuclei
  • Tracts of myelinated axons– but axons will appear as dots with surrounding myelin in cross section
200
Q

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ganglia

sensory
autonomic
satelite cells

A
  • Collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
  • Senory ganglia = cell bodies of sensory neurons
  • Autonomic ganglia = cell bodies of certain efferent neurons
  • Ganglion cells have typical features of large neuron cell body
  • Nissl substance
  • “Owl’s Eye” nuclei
  • Surrounded by satellite cells that provide structural & metabolic support
  • Have associated axon and dendrite
201
Q

Peripheral nerves

Endoneurium
Perineurium
Epineurium

SCHWANN cell

A

-Collections of axons bound by fibrocollagenous coverings
* May see capillaries in these coverings
* Axons may be myelinated/unmyelinated but in both cases are protected by Schwann cell

  • Endoneurium – surrounds each individual nerve fibre
  • Perineurium – surrounds a bundle of nerve fibres (forms a fascicle)
  • Epineurium – surrounds a bundle of fascicles
202
Q

peripheral Myelinated: Schwann cells

A

wrap around the axon (similar to oligodendrocytes
in the CNS). Numerous cell layers with lots of lipid condense to form myelin
which allows for more rapid, salutatory conduction

203
Q

peripheral Non-myelinated: protected by

A

Nerve fibres protected by lying in a groove in the cytoplasm of a Schwann cell. Conduct nerve impulses by slower, continuous conduction

204
Q

the heart

pericardial sac

A

Muscular pump enclosed in pericardial sac
-Sac contains fluid to reduce
friction

205
Q

Electrical Conduction System

Determines what 2. of the heart
Composed of

A
  • Determines heart rate and
    contraction
    -Composed of specialized cardiac
    fibres that lie below the
    endocardium
206
Q

electrical conduction two pacemaker

A

SA node in RA
AV node in RV

207
Q

electrical conduction two sets of distribution fibres

A

u AV bundle (bundle of His)
u Purkinje fibres

208
Q

Epicardium

mesothelial

A

-Thick outer layer (black line)
-Single layer of mesothelial cells lying on loose fibrocollagenous tissue (visceral pericardium)
-Contains branches of coronary
arteries and veins, nerves,
lymphatics, and some adipocytes

209
Q

Myocardium

Fibres are arranged in what way

A

-Muscular layer of the heart
-Thickness varies between
chambers
- Myocardial fibres are arranged in
spirals to provide a “wringing”
action on contraction

210
Q

Endocardium

endothelium type

A
  • Lines chambers of the heart and
    covers valves
    -Continuous with lining of blood
    vessels
    -Made of endothelium (recall –
    simple squamous epithelium that
    lines blood vessels) supported by
    loose connective tissue containing
    nerves and blood vessels
211
Q

Histology of Blood Vessels

tunica intima

Type of epithelium

A
  • Lines the lumen of the blood vessel
  • Thin and consists of simple squamous endothelium
    on basement membrane, which
    sits on a layer of fibrocollagenous
    tissue
  • May contain internal elastic lamina
212
Q

Tunica Media blood vessel

Type of muscle

A
  • Middle layer
  • Contains smooth muscle,
    collagen, and elastin
  • Varies in size and quantity of
    muscle and elastic
  • Classify artery vs. vein on this
    layer
213
Q

Tunica Adventitia blood vessel

vasa vasora
Consists mainly of what

A
  • Outermost layer
  • Consists mainly of collagen
  • External elastic lamina (EEL) may
    be present between tunica
    adventitia and tunica media
  • Vasa vasorum (small arteries
    supplying blood to large arteries
    and veins) and autonomic nerves
    seen here if present
214
Q

vein

A

everything other than adventitia is less distinct /smaller

215
Q

Microvasculature in Tissue / how blood flows

arterioles
venules
capillaries
junction
precapillary sphincter muscle type
metarterioles

A

arterioles to venules via capillaries

arteriole/capillary junction there is a precapillary sphincter of smooth muscle to control blood
flow
- Flow also controlled by
metarterioles

216
Q

Structure of Capillaries

Type of cells

interdigitation does what
pericytes source of what for what

Type of epithelium

A

simple squamous epithelium

-Tubes of endothelial cells connected by tight junctions and interdigitation

Only small molecules can pass through
-Exception is in the brain, where the cell junction is continuous (blood brain barrier)

-Lined with endothelium on basement membrane, with pericytes scattered along the length
-Pericytes are a source of smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts if there is a
need to regenerate a small vessel from a capillary

217
Q

Characteristics of Capillaries

A

Connect arterioles to venules

Connect arterioles to venules
- Site of product exchange
- Lined with endothelium which may have pores or be continuous
- Endothelium sits on a basement membrane that may be continuous or discontinuous
- Microscopically, capillary wall looks like a thin line with the nucleus appearing to bulge into the lumen

218
Q

three types of capillaries refers to holes

A

-Continuous (cells bound together by tight junctions)
-Fenestrated (contains pores that allow larger molecules through)
-Sinusoidal (contain large spaces that can allow proteins or even blood to pass through)

219
Q

Structure of Lymphatic Vessels

Main job of lymphatic vessels

Similar to

A

small blind-ended endothelial tubes that have the same
structure as capillaries:

  • Permeable to fluids and small molecules
    -Some have discontinuous basement membrane and large pores in the endothelial cytoplasm to allow passage of larger molecules
    -Lymphatic capillaries drain excess fluid from tissues and join together to form larger vessels resembling venules and veins
  • Valves are present to prevent backflow

-Microscopically, they look like veins, with thinner walls and more valves

220
Q

lymphoid function 2

A

Drain and filter lymph, elicit an immune response if needed

221
Q

Diffuse Lymphoid Tissue

MALT, think opening

Provides

A

-loosely organized mass of lymphocytes
-Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

-Non-encapsulated/diffuse
-Found in lamina propria of GI, respiratory, and urogenital tracts
-Provides protection from invaders via surface epithelium

222
Q

Lymphatic Nodules, ex

A

-Masses of densely packed lymphocytes
-pale-staining germinal centre (site of lymphocyte
proliferation)

-tonsils, Peyer’s patches in small intestine, lymphoid tissue in appendix

223
Q

Encapsulated organs 3 ex

A

lymph node
thymus
spleen

224
Q

lymph node

A

Small and encapsulated
Filter lymph

225
Q

thymus

A
  • Site of T cell development and maturation
    into immunocompetent T lymphs
  • Active until puberty then replaced by fat
226
Q

spleen

A

u Largest lymphatic organ
u Site of B and T cell production

227
Q

Structure of the Lymph Node

trabecuale
stroma

A

-Bean-shaped
-Enclosed by a capsule of dense fibrocollagenous tissue with trabeculae
(connective tissue “beams”) that extend into the lymph node
-Stroma = the network of reticulin that provides a framework for the cells

228
Q

Lymph Flow

Subcap
Afferent
cortical sin
Cortical tis
Med sin
Efferent
Hilum

A

from subcapsular sinus the lymph is brought by afferent lymphatic

than goes to cortical sinus , cortical tissue, medullary sinuses, these will form one efferent lymph which will end at the hilum

Subcap
Afferent
cortical sin
Cortical tis
Med sin
Efferent
Hilum

229
Q

Blood Supply to Lymph Node is where

A

At the hilum – small artery enters, small vein leaves

main route of entry of lymphocytes

at the node the lymph can initiate immune response

230
Q

Features of the Lymph Node

collagen capsules
cortex
paracortex
medulla
afferent and efferent
lymphocytes
stromal cells
macrophages

A

Collagen capsule
- Cortex – contains lymphoid nodules of B and T lymphocytes
-Pale staining germinal centre within nodules is the site of B cell proliferation
-Paracortex – contains T cells
-Medulla – contains sinuses with lymph, blood vessels, plasma cells and macrophages
- Has both afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels
- Cells within include lymphocytes, stromal cells (i.e., fibroblasts and endothelial) and macrophages

231
Q

Structure and function of the Spleen

A

-Filters particulate matter and aged red blood cells and platelets from the circulating blood
- Mounts a primary immune response to antigens in the blood

232
Q

white and red pulp of the spleen

A
  1. White pulp – immune response to blood-borne antigens
    -Collections of lymphoid tissue
    - Contains B and T lymphocytes
    - Germinal centres may form (if there is an immune response)
  2. Red pulp – disposes of worn-out blood cells
    - Contains lots of blood vessels, red blood cells, and phagocytes
    - Storage site for platelet
233
Q

3 Features of the Spleen

Encapsulated by x tissues
Supported by 2
Consists of pulp

A
  • Encapsulated (dense irregular fibroelastic tissue)
  • Supported by reticulin fibres and trabeculae (“beams” of connective tissue)
  • Consists of red and white pulp
234
Q

Four major elements of blood, and what they all do

A

-red blood cells: for oxygen transport
- White blood cells: for defense
- Platelets: for clotting
-Plasma: fluid portion that carries the cells as well as the nutrients, metabolites,
antibodies, hormones, clotting factors, and other molecules

235
Q

Red Blood cells in tissue/ image

A

-No nuclei so centre of cell looks paler
- Cells look smaller and biconcave shape isn’t obvious
- Red blood cells confined to blood vessels – but lots lyse (break apart) during fixation

refernce

236
Q

White blood cells in tissue, 5 types

A

-Use plasma as a transport medium from the bone marrow (where they are
made)

  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • Lymphocytes
  • Monocyte
237
Q

white blood cell Neutrophil

A

-Remains circulating in the blood until it is activated by bacterial infection/tissue injury

-moves btw endothelial tissue
- becomes highly motile once it enters the connective tissue
-Main role is to engulf/destroy bacteria – acute inflammatory response

-Not seen in large numbers in tissue, and processing causes some shrinkage
of the cells

-distinct multi lobed nucleus

238
Q

Eosinophil in tissue

A

-Remain in circulating blood
-move preferentially to the skin, lungs, and GI tract
-Move by chemotaxis
-typically seen in the lamina propria
-higher numbers due to allergies or parasitic states
-Nucleus present but obscured by eosinophilic (pink) granules

239
Q

Lymphocytes in tissue

A

-move from circulating blood into the tissues and into the specialized organs of the lymphatic system
-Function of immune surveillance and when encounter foreign material transform into active cells that mediate the immune response
-nucleus stains densely and takes up 90% of the cell, mostly no cytoplasm

240
Q

Plasma cells in tissue

A

-Form of B lymph that actively synthesize antibodies
-Larger than small lymphocytes
- eccentric nucleus / to the side
-Basophilic cytoplasm due to rRNA/ purple
-Golgi apparatus is pale staining area next to nucleus cytoplasmic hof
-Found beneath epithelium where bacteria and toxins may penetrate and enter the body

241
Q

Mast cells

A

-Blood basophils probably tissue mast cells
- involved in allergic response
- numerous granules that obscure the nucleus
-loose support tissue, usually around small blood vessels, and below epithelium
-Long lived and can proliferate in tissue
-heparin and histamine release

242
Q

Cells of mononuclear phagocytic
system/ monocytes-macrophages

-histiocytes
- Kupffer
-alveolar
-microglia

A

-Monocytes in blood and bone marrow – macrophages in tissue and lymphoid organs

  • Bone marrow precursors and circulating monocytes
  • Tissue macrophages both free and fixed (histiocytes) found in loose support tissue
  • Specialized macrophages (i.e. Kupffer cells in liver, sinus-lining cells of spleen and lymph node, alveolar macrophages in lung, microglia in brain, etc.)
243
Q

Components of the Respiratory System

function
2 main portions

A

Provides oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide

Two portions
- Air conducting
- Respiratory

244
Q

Conducting Portion

A

Transports air to and from the lungs via a series of tubes of decreasing size
-Also filters, warms, and moistens inspired air

Components:
u Nares (nostrils)
u Nasal cavities
u Mouth
u Nasopharynx (upper part of pharynx behind nose)
u Pharynx (throat)
u Larynx (voicebox)
u Trachea (windpipe)
u Primary, secondary, tertiary bronchi
u Bronchioles and terminal bronchioles

245
Q

Respiratory Portion

3 parts

A

-Site of actual exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen

  • Respiratory bronchioles
  • Alveolar ducts and sacs
  • Alveoli
246
Q

The Trachea

A

Runs from larynx to where it divides to form the right
and left primary bronchi at the 5th thoracic vertebra

u Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
u Fibrocollagenous tissue, seromucous glands
u Smooth muscle
u C rings of hyaline cartilage

247
Q

Respiratory Epithelium

several types of cells

gradual drescres

always suported by 2 connective tissues

A

-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with
goblet cells

Contains several types of cells:
u Columnar cells with cilia
u Goblet cells
u Basal cells (that form the other two types)
u Small neuroendocrine cells

As the diameter of the tube decreases, there is a
gradual change from pseudostratified ciliated columnar
to cuboidal, non-ciliated epithelium in lower airways

Airways supported by cartilage and fibrous connective
tissue

248
Q

Bronchi

As size decrease 3 als0 down and 2 up

A

-Start at the bifurcation of trachea

-As size decreases, amount of cartilage, number of glands and goblet cells also decreases

-As size decreases, amount of smooth muscle and elastic fibres increases

  • similar to trachea though cartilage in irregular plates with the remainder of wall supported by smooth muscle
249
Q

Bronchioles

A

u Simple ciliated columnar epithelium
u Very few goblet cells
u Cartilage support no longer necessary once diameter of airway is less than 1mm
u Major component of wall is smooth muscle

250
Q

Terminal Bronchioles

clara cells

A

u Epithelium is simple cuboidal with no cilia or goblet
cells
u Clara cells appear
u Non-ciliated
u Thought to be a source of surfactant precursor, degrades
toxins and divides to regenerate bronchiolar epithelium

251
Q

Respiratory Portion -
Histology

Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli

A

Respiratory bronchioles
-Discontinuous lining of simple cuboidal epithelium supported by a spiral of smooth muscle

Alveolar ducts
- Ill-defined passages leading from respiratory bronchioles
- Associated with a spiral of smooth muscle
- Separated from other alveoli by interalveolar sacs
- Alveolar sacs = cluster of several alveoli

Alveoli
- 150-400 million/adult
- Polygonal air space about 250 µm in diameter
- Defining wall shared with adjacent airspaces and contains capillaries

252
Q

Interalveolar Septum and
Air/Blood barrier

Alveolus

A

Alveolus
- pocket open at one side and lined with flattened epithelial cells
- surrounded by a capillary net
-Separated by alveolar wall/septum that is two layers of
alveolar epithelium over a capillary

253
Q

Total surface area of alveoli are lined by
two types of specialized cells

A

Type 1 pneumocyte
Type 2 pneumocyte

254
Q

Type 1 Pneumocyte

A

u Simple squamous in shape
u Site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
u Cytoplasm of these cells covers about 90% of the surface

255
Q

Type 2 Pneumocyte

surfactant
surface tension

A

Rounded secretory cell located in obtuse angles in the
alveolus
- Synthesize and secrete pulmonary surfactant
- Reduces surface tension preventing collapse of alveoli
during expiration, facilitates expansion during inspiration

256
Q

Cells of Alveoli

Type 1 and type 2 pneumocytes lie on the alveolar
basement membrane- Below is:
covers :
Alveolar macrophages lies:

A

-minimal support tissue composed of elastic and
reticulin fibres
-Covers the capillary bed
- on the surface of the pneumocytes

256
Q

Gas Exchange

Type of diffusion

What membranes passed 4

A

-Occurs between the air spaces in the lungs and the

blood by passive diffusion across alveolar and capillary walls

u Diffuse through respiratory membrane consisting of:

Alveolar wall (type 1 and type 2 pneumocytes)
Epithelial and capillary basement membranes
Endothelial cells of capillary

histo 184 (2 decks)

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