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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Capacity

A

Amount of information held in a memory store

STM= limited (approx 7 items)
LTM= unlimited

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2
Q

Duration

A

How long the memory lasts

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3
Q

Coding

A

How memory is processed and stored

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4
Q

Iconic store

A

Visual input (what we see)

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5
Q

Echoic store

A

Auditory input (what we hear)

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6
Q

Haptic store

A

Tactile input (what we feel/touch)

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7
Q

Sperling (1960) sensory memory

A

-Aim: to investigate the capacity and duration of sensory memory

-Method: Participants saw a grid of digits and letters for 50 milliseconds. They were either asked to recall the entire grid or after a specific tone, recall a particular row

-Results: Participants had a high recall accuracy for the indicated row, suggesting sensory memory can hold all information briefly, but that it decays rapidly if not attended to

-Conclusion: Sensory memory has a large capacity but a very short duration

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8
Q

Jacobs (1887) -Short term memory- digit span technique

A

-Aim: To measure the capacity of STM for numbers and letters

-Method: Participants were read a sequence of numbers or letters, gradually increasing until they could no longer recall the sequence in the correct order

-Results: The mean span for digits was 9.3 items, while for letters, it was 7.3 items

-Conclusion: STM has a limited capacity

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9
Q

Evaluation of Jacobs study on the capacity of STM

A

-Lacks Validity: The study was conducted a long time ago and early research often lacked adequate controls. Distractions or confounding variables may have impacted results, reducing validity.

-Despite the validity concerns, the results of Jacobs study have been replicated in later research, supporting its reliability

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10
Q

Miller (1956) - STM-‘The magical number seven, Plus or Minus Two’

A

-Aim: To investigate the capacity of STM

-Method: Observations of everyday memory patterns, including studies on digit span and chunking

-Results: Miller proposed that STM can hold around 7 + or - two chunks of information and that capacity can be increased by chunking information

-Conclusion: STM has a limited capacity that can be enhanced through chunking, but without chunking, it holds fewer items.

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11
Q

Evaluation of Miller (1956) study on capacity of the STM

A

-Jacobs (1887) conducted a digit span test and found similar STM capacity, adding more credibility to Miller’s findings

-Cowan (2001) argued STM capacity may actually be closer to 4 chunks, suggesting Miller’s estimate may be too high. This suggests that STM capacity could vary depending on experimental conditions

-Chunking is a widely applicable strategy for improving memory, such as in phone number recall. This suggests practical value in Miller’s research, particularly for everyday tasks involving memory

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12
Q

Why is LTM capacity more difficult to measure directly

A

Because of the vast and complex nature of information stored over a lifetime

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13
Q

Peterson and Peterson (1959) study on STM duration

A

-Aim: To investigate the duration of STM when rehearsal is prevented

-Method: Participants were presented with trigrams (e.g JFW) and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal, with recall intervals from 3 to 18 seconds

-Results: The accuracy of recall dropped significantly after a few seconds, with only 10% recall after 18 seconds

-Conclusion: STM duration is very limited (around 18 seconds) without rehearsal, supporting the MSM’s claim of discrete memory components

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14
Q

Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study on STM duration

A

-The use of a laboratory setting allowed the researchers to control extraneous variables, giving the study high internal validity and making the results reliable and replicable

-The study’s use of meaningless trigrams reduces external validity, as it may not accurately represent how people use memory in real world contexts. STM may differ for more meaningful information

-The sample consisted of psychology students who may have guessed the study’s purpose or may have had prior knowledge of memory studies, potentially meaning demand characteristics. This means the findings may not be generalisable to the broader population

-Alternative findings:
Reitman (1974) found that STM duration could last longer with auditory rather than visual stimuli, suggesting STM duration may vary with different types of information

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15
Q

Bahrick et al (1975) on LTM duration

A

-Aim: To investigate the duration of LTM using real life memories

-Method: 392 American graduates age 17-74 were tested on their recall of high school classmates names from yearbook photos through recognition and free recall tasks

-Results: Participants achieved 90% accuracy for recognition after 15 years and 70% after 48 years, although free recall accuracy was lower

-Conclusion: LTM has a potentially lifelong duration, especially for meaningful or familiar information

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16
Q

Evaluation of Bahrick et al (1975) study on LTM duration

A

-Using yearbook photos provides a real life context, enhancing the study’s ecological validity and suggesting that Bahrick’s findings can be applied to everyday memory

-The sample of American graduates may limit the generalisability of findings to other cultural or social groups. People from different educational systems or life backgrounds might perform differently on similar tasks

-Potential confounding variables
Some participants may have stayed in contact with classmates over the years, potentially reinforcing their memory and affecting their results. This complicates interpretations of LTM’s true duration

-Alternative findings:
Shepard (1967) found that memory recall for pictures declined less over time than for verbal recall, indicating that different types of information may be retained differently in LTM

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17
Q

Baddeley (1966) study on STM coding

A

-Aim: To investigate how information is coded in STM and LTM

-Method: Participants were presented with 4 lists of words: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar. Immediate and delayed recall was tested

-Results: STM recall was more challenging with acoustically similar words with LTM was harder with semantically similar words

-Conclusion: STM primarily uses acoustic coding while LTM primarily uses semantic coding

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18
Q

Evaluation of Baddeley’s study on STM coding

A

-The controlled word lists provided clear evidence that STM and LTM use different coding methods, supporting the multi store model of memory. This also allows for replication, making the findings more reliable

-The use of word lists may lack ecological validity, as it does not reflect the way memory is used in real life situations , where information is usually more meaningful and varied

-The study focused on only acoustic and semantic coding, overlooking other forms of encoding, such as visual or olfactory coding. This limits our understanding of the flexibility and complexity of memory processes

-Supporting research:
Brandimonte et al (1992) found that when verbal rehearsal was prevented, participants used visual encoding, suggesting that STM can flexibly use different types of coding, depending on the task

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19
Q

Meaning of acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar

A

Similar- similar sounding words

Not similar- words that sounded different

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20
Q

Meaning of semantically similar and semantically dissimilar

A

similar- Words with similar meanings

not similar- words with different meanings

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21
Q

What is the duration of LTM

A

Unlimited/ a life time

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22
Q

What type of coding does STM mainly use

A

Mainly acoustic (by sound)

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23
Q

What type of coding does LTM mainly use

A

Mainly semantic (by meaning)

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24
Q

Baddeley- LTM coding

A

-If participants were asked to recall the word list after a time interval of 20 minutes (LTM recall) they did worse with the semantically dissimilar words.

-This suggests that information is coded semantically in LTM

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25
Q

Who proposed the Multi store Model of Memory

A

Atkinson and Shriffin (1968)

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26
Q

What else is the Multi store model referred to as and why

A

The ‘modal model’ as it was widely used for a long time

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27
Q

How does the MSM explain the memory

A

-A linear process involving 3 distinct stores: sensory register, short term memory and long term memory

-Information flows from one store to the next in a sequential manner, depending on processes such as attention, rehearsal and retrieval

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28
Q

How many stores is there in the multi store model

A

-Sensory register
-STM memory
-LTM memory

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29
Q

What information does the sensory register store

A

-Briefly stores information from our senses e.g sights, sounds, smells, touch

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30
Q

What is the capacity of sensory memory

A

-Very large, as it briefly holds all sensory information as we encounter it

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31
Q

Duration of sensory memory

A

Very brief, lasting only milliseconds

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32
Q

Examples of the different sensory registers that the sensory memory uses

A

-Iconic memory (visual info)
-Echoic memory ( auditory info)

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33
Q

What coding does the sensory memory use

A

Based on the sense involved
(E.g visual = iconic store)

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34
Q

Where is sensory memory transferred to once it has been attended to

A

STM

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35
Q

Duration of the STM

A

-Limited

-Around 18-30 seconds unless rehearsal is used to keep it active

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36
Q

Capacity of the STM

A

-Limited to about 7 + or - 2 items (Miller 1956).

-Chunking can extend this capacity

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37
Q

What method can be used to increase the capacity of the STM

A

Chunking

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38
Q

What keeps the memory active in the STM and transfers it to the LTM

A

Rehearsal

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39
Q

Once information is store in LTM it can be retrieved into STM for use

A
40
Q

Key processes in the Multi store model of the memory

A

-Attention:
If a person focuses on a sensory input, the information is transferred form the sensory register to STM

-Maintenance rehearsal:
Repeating information in STM strengthens it, increasing the likelihood that it will transfer to LTM

-Retrieval:
Information stored in LTM can be brought back into STM when needed for immediate use

41
Q

Scoville and Milner (1957) HM

A

-HM had severe epilepsy and underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus. Post-surgery, he was unable to form new long term memories but retained memories from before the operation.

-His STM was functional, but information could not be transferred to LTM.

42
Q

Strength and limitation of Scoville and Milner 1957 study on HM

A

STRENGTH:
-Supports the claim of the MSM that STM and LTM are separate stores, as HM could not transfer information between them

LIMITATION:
-Case studies like HM are unique and lack generalisability. His memory deficits were caused by surgery, which may not reflect typical memory processes

43
Q

Who was Clive Wearing

A

-Contracted a virus that caused amnesia. He could only remember information for 20-30seconds but could recall events from before his illness, such as his wife’s name.

44
Q

How does Clive Wearings case study support the MSM

A

-Like HM, this demonstrates the separation of STM and LTM, as information could not transfer between stores

45
Q

Limitation of Clive Wearings case study for supporting the MSM

A

-Wearings ability to recall procedural memories (e.g playing the piano) challenges the MSM, suggesting they LTM is not a unitary store

46
Q

The Primacy and Regency Effect - Glanzer and Cunitz 1966

A

-Participants recalled word lists better from the beginning (primacy) and end (regency) of a list

47
Q

How does the Primary and Regency Effect support the MSM

A

-The primacy effect occurs because early words are rehearsed and transferred to LTM, while the regency effect shows words still active in STM, Supporting the idea of separate memory stores.

48
Q

Limitation of the Primary and Regency effect -Glanzer and Cunitz 1966

A

-These findings may lack ecological validity, as recalling world lists is artificial and may not reflect how memory operates in real world contexts

49
Q

How do Baddeley and Hitch 1974 criticise the MSM

A

-Researched the WMM, finding that STM is divided into multiple components (e.g phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad)

50
Q

How does Tulving 1985 criticise the MSM

A

-Proposed that LTM consists of separate stores: episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory.

-These findings challenge the MSM’s simplicity, suggesting it does not fully explain the complexity of memory

51
Q

How does Beardsley 1997 support the MSM (Brain scanning )

A

-Brain scans show that the prefrontal cortex is active during STM tasks but not during LTM tasks

52
Q

How does Squire et al 1992 support the MSM (evidence from brain scanning)

A

-The hippocampus is active when LTM is engaged

-This provides biological evidence and supporting the MSMs claim that STM and LTM are distinct systems

53
Q

Limitation of Squire et al 1992-Brain scanning

A

-Brain activity does not explain how information is transferred between stores or why some memories are forgotten despite rehearsal

54
Q

Episodic memory

A

-Ability to recall personal experiences or events from your life

-These memories are explicit, meaning they require a conscious effort to recall

55
Q

Example of an episodic memory

A

Remembering your first day at school, a family holiday or birthday party

56
Q

Areas associated with forming episodic memories

A

-Hippocampus and other areas of the brain,such as the prefrontal cortex

57
Q

Semantic memory

A

-Consists of knowledge of facts, concepts and meanings.

-Like episodic memory, it is explicit. But unlike episodic memory, it is not timestamped and doesn’t involve personal experiences

58
Q

Example of semantic memory

A

Knowing London is the capital of England, understanding the meaning of words or that water boils at 100 degrees

59
Q

What part is semantic memory associated with

A

The temporal lobe

60
Q

Procedural memory

A

-Memory for skills and actions. These memories are implicit.

-They enable us to perform tasks automatically after sufficient practise

61
Q

Example of procedural memory

A

Knowing how to ride a bike, drive a car or play the piano

62
Q

What parts of the brain is procedural memory associated with

A

The cerebellum and motor cortex

63
Q

Who proposed the 3 types of LTM

A

Tulving et al (1985)

(Procedural, semantic, episodic)

64
Q

Explicit memory

A

-Episodic
-Semantic

65
Q

Implicit memory

A

-Procedural

66
Q

Meaning of explicit

A

-Requires a concious effort to recall

67
Q

Meaning of implicit

A

-Doesn’t require a conscious effort to recall

68
Q

How can cognitive training be used to support Tulving (1985) -3 LM stores

A

-Episodic memory often declines with age, while semantic memory remains relatively stable. This distinction has informed interventions to improve memory performance in older adults

69
Q

Strength of practical applications as evidence for supporting Tulving et al (1985)- 3 LM stores

A

-Demonstrate real world value of understanding LTM types. E.g understanding procedural memory has led to treatments for amnesia patients to retain important life skills

70
Q

Limitations of practical evidence in supporting Tulving et al (1985) - 3 LTM stores

A

-Critics argue that these practical applications may oversimplify memory processes. Episodic, semantic and procedural memories often overlap.

E.G learning a new sills initially involves episodic memory to recall training sessions

71
Q

How can treatment of amnesia be used to support Tulving (1985) - 3 LTM stores

A

-Therapist can focus on retaining procedural memory (e.g teaching new skills) in patients with impaired episodic or semantic memory.

-E.g Clive could still learn new motor tasks despite his episodic memory loss

72
Q

Neuroimaging evidence to support Tulving et al (1985) LTM theory

A

-Tulving et al (1994)- Participants were asked to perform task involving the episodic and semantic memory, while undergoing PET scans. He found that the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex was engaged during episodic tasks and the temporal lobe was activated during semantic memory tasks

-Additionally, the procedural memory has been linked to the motor cortex and the cerebellum as they are involved in motor skills and actions

Strengths -

-Neuroimaging provides scientific, objective evidence for the physical reality of distinct LTM types, supporting Tulving’s theory.

-Additionally, these methods have allowed researchers to link other regions of the brain to specific memory types

Limitations-

-Brainscanning studies are correlational; they show which areas of the brain are activated during tasks but do not establish causation. E.G Activity in the hippocampus during episodic tasks does not prove that it exclusively controls episodic memory

73
Q

Clinical evidence to support Tulving et al (1985) LTM theory

A

-HM: lost ability to form new episodic and semantic memories but could form new procedural memories. E.G he could learn new motor skills, such as mirror drawing’

-Clive Wearing: Episodic memory was dysfunctional, however his semantic memory remained intact

Strengths-

-Demonstrates how episodic, semantic and procedural memory are 3 separate stores, located in different areas of the brain, supporting Tulving’s theory

-Additionally, case studies are valuable in providing insight that cannot be achieved ethically through experimental methods, making them a cornerstone in neuropsychology research

Limitations-

-Case studies often lack generalisability. E.G HM and Clive had unique injuries that may not reflect typical memory processes

-Brain damage often affects multiple areas of the brain, making it difficult to pinpoint a specific region as being responsible for a specific type of LTM

74
Q

Criticisms of Tulving et al (1985) LTM theory

A

-Some researchers suggest that episodic, semantic and procedural memory interact more than Tulving’s theory proposes

-For example Cohen and Squire (1980)- suggest a distinction between declarative memory (episodic and semantic) and non declarative memory (procedural)

This challenges the idea that episodic memory and semantic memory work independently

Strengths

-highlights the complexity of the memory and encourages further refinement of models like Tulving’s
-The interaction between semantic and episodic memory is supported by real life examples. For example, personal experiences often influence factual knowledge such as learning facts about the place you travel to on a family holiday

Limitations

-While alternative explanations simplify the LTM, they do not fully explain distinctions such as the procedural memories independence from semantic and episodic memory

75
Q

Who proposed the Working memory model

A

-Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

76
Q

What does the orig memory model focus on and what does it present it as

A

-Focuses on the STM, presenting it as an active system for processing and manipulating information rather than as a simple passive store

77
Q

Key components of the WMM

A

-Central executive
-Phonological loop
-Visuospatial sketchpad
-Episodic buffer

78
Q

Function of the Central executive

A

-Directs attention and decides which tasks are handled by the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad or episodic buffer

79
Q

Function of the phonological loop

A

Processes auditory and verbal information

80
Q

Function of the visuospatial sketchpad

A

-Processes visual and spatial information

81
Q

Function of the episodic buffer

A

-Integrates information from multiple sources to create a coherent episode e.g PL, VSS, and LTM

82
Q

Capacity of the central executive

A

-Very limited. Can only focus on one task at a time effectively

83
Q

Capacity of the phonological loop

A

-Limited to around 2 seconds of speech based information

84
Q

Capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad

A

-Limited but can handle simple visual or spatial tasks

85
Q

Capacity of the episodic buffer

A

-Limited to about 4 chunks of information

86
Q

Example of the central executive

A

-Solving a problem while ignoring loud distractions

87
Q

Example of the phonological loop

A

-Remembering a phone number by repeating it silently

88
Q

Example of the visuospatial sketchpad

A

-Visualising your route to a friends house

89
Q

Example of the episodic buffer

A

-Combining verbal descriptions and visual layouts to imagine a new city

90
Q

What two components is the phonological loop divided into

A

-Phonological store: The ‘inner ear’, which holds spoken words for a brief time
-Articulatory process: the ‘inner voice’, which rehearses words silently to prevent decay

91
Q

What two components is the visuospatial sketchpad divided into

A

-Visual cache: stores visual data, such as shapes and colours

-Inner scribe: Processes spatial relationships and movement like navigating a map

92
Q

Criticism of the central executive

A
  • Critics argue that the concept of the central executive is vague and oversimplified
93
Q

How do dual task studies support the WMM

A

Baddeley et al (1975)

-Participants struggled more when performing two visual tasks (e.g tracking a light and describing the letter F) compared to performing a visual and verbal task simultaneously.

-This is because two visual tasks competed for the visuospatial sketchpad, while a verbal task engaged the phonological loop

Strength

-This demonstrates that the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are separate systems, supporting the WMM

Limitation

-Dual task studies often take place in artificial settings, reducing ecological validity. Multitasking in real life may involve more complex interactions than those tested in the lab

94
Q

Supporting evidence for the central executive

A

Evidence for the central executive comes from experiments requiring attention allocation

Hitch and Baddeley (1976): participants performed two tasks:

-Task 1: Participants judged whether “B is followed by A” for letter pairs like “AB”, engaging the central executive

-Task 2: Participants repeated “the the the” (phonological loop) or said random digits (central executive and phonological loop)

-Result: Task 1 slowed when task 2 used both the central executive and phonological loop, demonstrating the central executive’s limited capacity

Strength

-This supports the WMM’s view that the central executive manages attention and is separate from the slave systems

Limitation

-The central executive’s role remains vague, with critics arguing it is little more than a description of “attention allocation”

95
Q

Evidence from brain damaged patients in supporting the WMM

A

Studies of patients with brain injuries provide evidence for the separation of WMM components

Shallice and Warrington (1970):

-Patient KF had impaired STM for auditory information but normal STM for visual information, suggesting separate stores for verbal (phonological loop) and visual (visuospatial sketchpad) processing.

Farah et al (1988)

-Patient LH performed better on spatial tasks than visual imagery tasks, supporting the distinction between visual and spatial subsystems in the visuospatial sketchpad

Strength

-Case studies provide real life support for the WMM’s distinct components

Limitation

-Case studies lack generalisability and often involve damage affecting multiple brain areas, making it difficult to isolate specific components

Psychology (14 decks)

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