Mao's China - Unit 2 Flashcards
Economic conditions in which authoritarian state emerged
- Backward economy
- The Chinese economy was backwards, especially compared to Japans.
- China’s industry and commerce was mostly under foreign control and they were heavily in debt to foreign banks - Population growth
- China’s population doubled in the 19th century, from a quarter of a billion to half a billion people
- China’s agriculture was unable to produce the extra food needed by its growing population, and so widespread famines were frequent - Hyperinflation
- Between 1935 and 1949, China experienced a hyperinflation in which prices rose by more than a thousandfold.
- The immediate cause of the inflation is easy to isolate, and it was the Nationalist government continually injected large amounts of paper currency into the Chinese economy.
Social division in which authoritarian state emerged
- Feudal system
- China followed a hierarchy called feudalism. Feudalism divided society into three different categories: emperors, nobles, and commoners, with commoners making up the vast majority of the population.
- Heavy taxation, corruption, and harsh social constructs affected most peasants in China. Corruption led to a tax system which stiffened those who worked off the land. - Manchu Dynasty
- Clear that the ruling Qing (Manchu) dynasty could no longer protect China. This was evident from its alternative name in the West, Manchu and it originally came from Manchuria.
- Having invaded China and seized the imperial throne in 1644 its emperors had governed China from then on. The resentment among many Chinese toward rule by the ‘foreign’ Qing dynasty intensified as China’s problems became worse. - Century of humiliation
- 1839-1949
This century included a series of events that opened China to foreign colonialism.
- This century also included unequal treaties, such as forcing treaty ports, concessions and sphere of influence.
- During this time China lost many wars, which were: First and Second Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War and Boxer Rebellion.
- All of this led to hatred against ruling Manchu Dynasty and forced Empress Dowager Cixi to modernize China, but they were too late. - Founding CCP
- 1921
- Founding of Chinese Communist Party, and this was supported by agents from Russian comintern
- The party initially aligned itself with left-wing GMD as part of a nationalist movement to defeat warlords and overthrow foreign influence
- Chang in 2005 said “Moscow wanted to use the CCP as a Trojan horse to manipulate the much bigger Nationalist Party” and “Agents played a gigantic role in helping deliver China to Mao”
Impact of war in which authoritarian state emerged
- Opium Wars
- 1839-1842
- 1856-1860
- Exposed the weakness of the Qing dynasty and its inability to defend China against foreign aggression
- Contributed to the “Century of Humiliation” that fueled Chinese nationalism and desire for a strong, centralized state - First Sino-Japanese War
- 1894-1895
- China’s defeat by Japan shattered the myth of Chinese superiority and highlighted the need for modernization
- Increased resentment towards the Qing dynasty and foreign imperialist powers - 21 Demands
- 1915
- Japan’s aggressive demands on China after WWI exposed China’s vulnerability
- Fueled anti-imperialist and nationalist sentiments that the Communist Party capitalized on - Second Sino-Japanese War
- 1937-1945
- United various Chinese factions, including the Communists, against the Japanese invasion
- Allowed the Communists to gain military experience and expand their influence - Chinese Civil War
- Century of humiliation
- 1839-1949
This century included a series of events that opened China to foreign colonialism.
- This century also included unequal treaties, such as forcing treaty ports, concessions and sphere of influence.
- During this time China lost many wars, which were: First and Second Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War and Boxer Rebellion.
- All of this led to hatred against ruling Manchu Dynasty and forced Empress Dowager Cixi to modernize China, but they were too late. - Xinhai Revolution
- 1911
- An armed uprising that led to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China
- Began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911 and ended with the abdication of the last Qing emperor in 1912
Weakness of political system in which authoritarian state emerged
- Unequal treaties
- The Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) forced China to sign unequal treaties like the Treaty of Nanjing, ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening up treaty ports
- These treaties exposed the Qing dynasty’s weakness and inability to defend China’s sovereignty
They fueled resentment towards the Qing and foreign powers, contributing to the “Century of Humiliation” - 1911 Republican Revolution
- The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1911, but failed to establish a stable republican government
- The weak Beiyang government was unable to control warlords and unify China
- This political instability and infighting allowed the Communists to gain support by promising order and national strength - May Fourth Movement
- China resented the failure of the Republic and the start of warlordism intensified when China was further humiliated by the victorious Allied powers at the Paris Peace Conference
- In May 1919, China was told that they were not going to receive back the territories that Germany took from them, but instead the territories were going to be given to Japan
- This frustrated the Chinese and led to the May Fourth movement, which was a series of anti-government and anti-foreign protests and demonstrations that began on May Fourth 1919 and caused chaos in China for a number of days. - Warlord era
- 1916-1928
- After the fall of the Qing, China descended into a period of warlordism, with regional military leaders fighting for power
- The Beiyang government in Beijing had little control over these warlords
- The chaos and infighting of the warlord era discredited the republican system and made people receptive to the Communists’ promises of unity and stability under Mao
Persuasion and coercion as a method to establish an authoritarian state
Persuasion
- Mao promoted a strong nationalist and communist ideology that appealed to the masses
The CCP used propaganda, education, and mass campaigns to indoctrinate the population
- Mao presented himself as a charismatic leader who would restore China’s strength and pride
Coercion
- The CCP ruthlessly suppressed all opposition through violence, imprisonment, and political campaigns
- Mao used the military to crush dissent and enforce his policies
- The CCP controlled all aspects of society through a vast bureaucracy and surveillance system
Impact
- Mao’s use of persuasion and coercion allowed him to consolidate his personal dictatorship
- The CCP’s control over the economy, media, and education system ensured ideological conformity
- Mao’s authoritarian rule led to disastrous policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution
When was Mao’s rise to power?
1911-1949
The role of leaders as a method used to an establish authoritarian state
Mao’s Charismatic Leadership
- Mao’s charisma and revolutionary ideology appealed to the masses, especially during the Long March and Yan’an years
- He made people feel they had power while he controlled everything behind the scenes
Mao’s Ideological Position
- Mao’s Marxist-Leninist ideology and vision for a socialist China resonated with the people
- His ideological appeal was crucial to his popular support and rise to power
Mao’s Consolidation of Power
- After the CCP’s victory in the Civil War, Mao established himself as the dictator through legal methods
- He used the 100 Flowers Campaign to consolidate power by purging dissenters
Mao’s Maintenance of Power
- Mao maintained power through charismatic leadership, propaganda, and suppression of opposition
Ideology as a method used to establish an authoritarian state
Key Elements of Mao’s Ideology
- Continuous revolution to prevent the restoration of capitalism
- Peasant-based revolution led by the CCP rather than the urban proletariat
- Cult of personality around Mao as the supreme leader
- Emphasis on class struggle, anti-imperialism, and self-reliance
Spreading of Ideology
- Mao’s writings, especially the “Little Red Book”, were mandatory study for all Chinese
- Propaganda campaigns glorified Mao and the CCP’s revolutionary struggle
- Education system and media were tightly controlled to indoctrinate the masses
Impact on Establishing Authoritarian Rule
- Maoism provided a unifying ideology to rally the masses behind the CCP
- Cult of personality around Mao ensured unquestioning obedience to his leadership
- Constant class struggle and purges of “counter-revolutionaries” eliminated opposition
- Emphasis on self-reliance and anti-imperialism justified the CCP’s authoritarian rule
Use of force as a method used to establish an authoritarian state
Chinese Civil War (1927-1949)
- After the Nationalist Guomindang (GMD) turned on the Communists in 1927, the CCP had to rely on force to survive
- Mao’s guerilla tactics and the Long March allowed the CCP to expand its influence in the countryside
- The CCP’s eventual victory over the GMD in 1949 was achieved through military force
Purges and Struggle Sessions
- Mao used purges and “struggle sessions” to eliminate political opponents and consolidate power
- Struggle sessions involved public humiliation and forced confessions, often leading to imprisonment or execution
Laogai Labor Camps
- Mao established a network of labor camps known as Laogai to imprison political dissidents and “counter-revolutionaries”
- Conditions in the camps were harsh, with many prisoners dying from overwork, malnutrition, and abuse
Suppression of opposition
- Mao used force to crush any signs of dissent or opposition to his rule
- The 100 Flowers Campaign, where Mao briefly allowed criticism of the regime, was followed by a harsh crackdown on dissenters
Foreign Policy Failures
- Mao’s aggressive foreign policy, such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, led to economic disasters and social upheaval
- The failure of these policies weakened Mao’s position, but he used force to maintain his grip on power
Propaganda as a method used to establish an authoritarian state
Aims of Propaganda
- Build a cult of personality around Mao as the supreme leader
- Mobilize popular participation in national campaigns and the communist revolution
- Encourage the Chinese people to emulate government-approved model workers and soldiers
Controlling Propaganda
- The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) tightly controlled all forms of media and communication
- Propaganda was disseminated through newspapers, radio, films, posters, and political campaigns
Key Propaganda Techniques
- Struggle sessions where people were forced to publicly admit personal failures
- Rectification of conduct campaigns to enforce ideological purity
- Anti-movement campaigns that scapegoated the bourgeoisie and other enemies
Impact on Consolidating Power
- Propaganda helped Mao establish himself as the undisputed dictator after the CCP’s victory in the civil war
- It maintained the facade that the people had power while Mao controlled everything behind the scenes
- Propaganda was crucial in Mao’s consolidation and maintenance of his authoritarian rule
Use of legal methods to consolidate and maintain power
Household Registration System
- 1949-1950
- Every individual given class label and ranked as “good”, “middle”, or “bad” based on loyalty to the party
- Aimed to prevent mass exodus of peasants from countryside
- By 1955, 20 million peasants had moved to urban cities
Land Reform
- early 1950s
- Stage 1: 2-3 million landlords executed as feudal China came under attack
- Stage 2: Peasants organized into mutual-aid teams, encouraged to share tools and livestock
- Outcome: Easier for Party to requisition grain and develop state monopolies, but also widespread hunger and famine due to high state levies
Anti-Movements
- 1951-1952
- “Three-anti campaign” targeted waste, corruption, and inefficiency
- “Five-anti campaign” targeted industrial sabotage, tax evasion, bribery, fraud, and theft of government property
- Declared reactionaries and counter-revolutionaries as enemies of the state
100 Flowers Campaign
- 1957
- Initially encouraged open criticism in the party and country
- Escalated into attacks on leading figures and even Mao himself
- In 1958, launched a massive anti-rightist movement led by Deng Xiaoping in response
- More than half a million people labelled “rightists”, forced to commit suicide or go to the countryside for reeducation
Administrative Structure
- China divided into six regions, each governed by four major officials: Party Secretary, Military Commander, Chairman, and Political Commissar
- Effectively put China under military control
- Judicial procedures dispensed with to allow quicker arrests
- Average of 10 million prisoners held each year, 25 million died in camps across Mao’s rule
Mass Killings
- Targeted gangs and triads, e.g. in Guangzhou and Shanghai, about 90,000 executed
- Quotas for number of executions per thousand issued by Mao
- Lowest estimate: national killing rate of 1.2 per thousand
Use of force to consolidate and maintain power
Consolidation of Power
- Mao used violence and force extensively during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalists (GMD) to secure victory for the Communists
- After the CCP’s victory in 1949, Mao established himself as the dictator through legal methods
Mao conducted purges and struggle sessions to eliminate opposition and dissent
Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries
- Regulations for the Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries (1951) authorized police action against dissident individuals and suspected groups
- A campaign against anti-communist holdouts, bandits, and political opponents was also pressed
- Intervention in Tibet
- Beijing dispatched troops to Tibet in 1950 to complete the consolidation of communist power
- After a period of sporadic clashes, the Tibetans rose in rebellion in 1959, to which Beijing responded with force
Laogai System
- Mao used the Laogai system, a network of forced labor camps, to punish political opponents and dissidents
Suppression of Dissent
- The 100 Flowers Campaign, where Mao asked for criticism but then purged the dissenters, demonstrated his intolerance for opposition
- Mao used anti-movements to scapegoat the bourgeois and suppress dissent
Use of charismatic leadership to consolidate and maintain power
Consolidation of Power
- Mao’s legendary status as a survivor of the Long March made him a charismatic figure
- His ability to connect with the peasantry and promise them land and power appealed to the masses
- Mao presented himself as a leader who could solve all of China’s problems through Communism
Maintenance of Power
- Mao maintained the illusion that the people had power while he controlled everything behind the scenes
- He used struggle sessions and rectification campaigns to purge dissenters and consolidate his cult of personality
- Mao’s charismatic leadership allowed him to scapegoat the bourgeois and intellectuals during anti-movement campaigns
Impact of Charismatic Leadership
- Mao’s charisma and ability to win the “hearts and minds” of the people was crucial in the CCP’s victory in the Chinese Civil War
- His personality cult and control over the party apparatus enabled Mao to establish himself as a dictator after the CCP’s triumph
- Mao’s charismatic leadership style laid the foundations for the authoritarian system that persisted in China long after his death
Use of propaganda to consolidate and maintain power
Consolidation of Power
- Mao used propaganda to win the “hearts and minds” of the people during the Chinese Civil War and establish the Communist regime
- Struggle sessions and rectification campaigns in Yan’an indoctrinated the population and party members
- Propaganda portrayed Mao as a charismatic leader who empowered the masses while maintaining control behind the scenes
Maintenance of Power
- Anti-rightist movements used propaganda to scapegoat the bourgeoisie and consolidate Mao’s authority
- Propaganda was used to justify attacks on “capitalist roaders” and purges of CCP members
- Propaganda promoted model workers and soldiers for the population to emulate
Dissemination of Propaganda
- Mao’s “Quotations from Chairman Mao” were widely distributed as flashcards and books to spread his ideology
- Propaganda comics and catalogues were produced to indoctrinate the masses and overseas supporters
- Propaganda posters, films, and media were tightly controlled by the CCP to shape public opinion
Nature of opposition
Landlord Class
- Targeted by the CCP for their wealth and perceived exploitation of peasants
- Faced persecution, confiscation of property, and execution during land reforms
Intellectuals and Professionals
- Resented CCP’s control over education and media
- Targeted during campaigns like the Hundred Flowers Movement and Anti-Rightist Movement
- Many sent to labor camps or executed for criticizing the regime
Religious Groups
- Faced restrictions on religious practices and property confiscation
- Some leaders executed or imprisoned for refusing to cooperate with the CCP
Ethnic Minorities
- Resentment towards Han Chinese dominance and CCP’s assimilation policies
- Faced discrimination, cultural suppression, and violent crackdowns on dissent
Peasants and Workers
- Discontent over low living standards, food shortages, and harsh working conditions
- Strikes and protests brutally suppressed by the CCP
Nationalist and Democratic Factions
- Opposed CCP’s one-party rule and totalitarian control
- Targeted during campaigns like the Three-Anti and Five-Anti Movements
- Many leaders executed or imprisoned
Treatment of opposition
Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries Campaign
- 1950-1953
- Launched to eliminate political opposition and consolidate CPC control
- Resulted in the execution of over 700,000 alleged counter-revolutionaries
Three-Anti and Five-Anti Campaigns
- 1951-1952
- Targeted corruption, waste and bureaucracy in the CPC and private businesses
- Over 100,000 CPC officials were purged as “tigers” in the Three-Anti Campaign
Collectivization of Agriculture
- 1953-1956
- Peasants who resisted collectivization were labeled as “kulaks” and faced persecution
- Mao pushed for rapid collectivization despite opposition from Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping
Hundred Flowers Campaign
- 1956-1957
- Mao initially encouraged criticism of the CPC to promote reform, but retracted it when the criticism became too harsh
- Intellectuals who spoke out were labeled as “rightists” and persecuted
Great Leap Forward
- 1958-1961
- Mao’s radical economic policies faced opposition from pragmatists like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping
- At the Lushan Conference in 1959, Defense Minister Peng Dehuai was purged for criticizing the GLF
Socialist Education Movement
- 1962-1966
- Launched to purge “capitalist roaders” and regenerate revolutionary fervor
- Mao’s opponents Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were labeled as “capitalist roaders” and purged
Cultural Revolution 1966-1976
- Mao mobilized the Red Guards to attack the “Four Olds” (old customs, culture, habits, ideas) and purge his opponents
- Liu Shaoqi was persecuted to death, while Deng
Xiaoping was demoted and sent to work in a factory
Extent of opposition
Hundred Flowers Campaign
- 1956-1957
- Mao initially allowed open criticism of the Communist Party to gauge the extent of opposition
Intellectuals and students took advantage of the relaxed censorship to voice dissent
- When the criticism became too severe, Mao abruptly ended the campaign and cracked down on the opposition
Anti-Rightist Campaign
- 1957-1959
- Mao labeled those who criticized the regime during the Hundred Flowers Campaign as “rightists”
- Over 550,000 people were persecuted, with many sent to labor camps or executed
- This campaign effectively silenced most open opposition to Mao’s rule
Cultural Revolution
- 1966-1976
- Mao launched this campaign to purge the Communist Party of “bourgeois elements”
- Mao’s Red Guards attacked intellectuals, teachers, and officials seen as disloyal
- Millions were persecuted, with many killed or driven to suicide
- The Cultural Revolution decimated China’s intelligentsia and destroyed traditional culture
Tiananmen Square Protests
- 1989
- Student-led demonstrations called for democracy, free speech and a free press
- The protests were brutally suppressed by the military, with estimates of hundreds to thousands killed
- This event demonstrated the Communist Party’s unwillingness to tolerate any organized opposition
