Learning Theory

Question 1

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 1

A process that creates an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previous neutral one

Question 2

Define the following:

a. Unconditioned Stimulus
b. Conditioned Stimulus
c. Unconditioned Response
d. Conditioned Response

Answer 2

a. Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (UCR) without prior learning

b. Conditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR

c. Unconditioned Response
A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (UCS) without prior learning

d. Conditioned Response
A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Question 3

What is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 3

A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus – it will elicit a conditioned response but in a weaker form

Question 4

What is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 4

The ability to respond differently to various stimuli

e.g a child responding differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)

Question 5

What is extinction?

Answer 5

A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear

Question 6

Give brief descriptions of iconic studies into classical conditioning.

Answer 6

Pavlov’s Dogs – dogs would start salivating (UCR) when they were brought food (UCS). Then a bell was rung every time before the food was brought to them. Then they started salivating (CR) every time the bell was rung (CS).

Little Albert
BEFORE conditioning
rat- neutral stimulus- no response
loud noise (UCS)- crying, trying to crawl away (UCR)

DURING conditioning
rat (neutral stimulus) + loud noise (UCS)- crying, trying to crawl away (UCR)

AFTER conditioning

rat (previously neutral stimulus) CS- crying, attempting to crawl away in response to rat (CR)

Question 7

What is observational/modelling learning and the steps to successful modelling?

Answer 7

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting the consequences of another person’s actions
Occurs before direct practice

steps;

1. pay attention to model
2. remember model
3. reduce modelled behaviour
4. if behaviour rewarded, more likely to recur

Question 8

Name and describe an experiment that demonstrated observational learning?

Answer 8

Bobo Doll Experiment – children watched their parents beat up the doll and then they went on to do the same thing

Question 9

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 9

A process in which behaviour is learned and maintained by its consequence

Question 10

Define the following:

a. Reinforcement
b. Reinforcer
c. Punishment
d. Punisher

Answer 10

a. Reinforcement
A responses is strengthened by an outcome that follows
b. Reinforcer
The outcome (a stimulus or event) that increases the frequency of a response
c. Punishment
A response that is weakened by an outcome that follows
d. Punisher
A consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response

Question 11

What is operant extinction?

Answer 11

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

Question 12

What are the two types of reinforcement?

Answer 12

Positive Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer
Negative Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus e.g use of painkillers is reinforced by removing pain

REMEMBER positive and negative refer to presentation or removal of stimulus

Question 13

What are the four schedules of partial reinforcement?

Answer 13

Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement occurs after a fixed time interval
Variable interval schedule – the time interval varies at random around an average
Fixed ratio schedule – reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses
Variable ratio – reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centred around an average

Question 14

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 14

Every instance of behaviour is reinforced

This is learnt more rapidly than partial reinforcement because the association is easier to understand

It also means that it extinguishes more rapidly than partial reinforcement because the shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand

Question 15

What is learning?

Answer 15

when an experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour/capabilities
can be;
-overt (behavioural)
-covert (cognitive)

Question 16

What are the three divisions of learning theory?

Answer 16

• antecedents, environmental stimuli that exist before the behaviour of interest
• behaviour, (future behaviour may be influenced baby both antecedents and consequences)
• consequences, a stimulus change that follows a behaviour of interest

Question 17

What are the four basic learning processes?

Answer 17

1. classical conditioning (learning what event signal a consequence)
2. operant conditioning (learning one thing leads to another)
3. observational/modelling learning (learning from others)
4. non-associative learning (response to repeated stimuli)

Question 18

When is classical conditioning strongest?

Answer 18

1. repeated CS-UCS pairings
2. more intense UCS
3. forward pairing- CS followed by UCS
4. short time interval between CS and UCS

Question 19

Define habituation

Answer 19

a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus

Question 20

Define sensitisation

Answer 20

an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus

Question 21

What is overshadowing using an example?

Answer 21

when two or more CS are present but one provides a stronger response than the other as it is more relevant

Cancer patients divided into two groups
Group one given unpleasant, novel drink
Group two given water

Patients in group one showed significantly reduced nausea to clinic setting alone i.e. the CS had been altered

Question 22

Explain using an example the two factor theory of maintenance of classically conditioned associations

Answer 22

trauma (UCS) from a traumatic needle injection + needle (CS) leads to a fear response (UCR)

clinic setting (CS) leads to fear response (CR)

so avoiding injections- fear reduction- tendency to avoid is reinforced i.e NEGATIVE reinforcement

Question 23

What is Thorndike’s law of effect?

Answer 23

A response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to
occur.
A response followed by an aversive consequence will become less likely to occur

Question 24

What are primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 24

Primary Reinforcers: those needed for survival e.g. food, water, sleep, sex

Secondary Reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers e.g. money, praise

Question 25

What is positive punishment?

Answer 25

occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus (e.g. squirting a cat with water when it jumps on dining table)

Question 26

What is negative punishment?

Answer 26

Negative Punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus (e.g. phone confiscated)

Question 27

What did Skinner conclude about punishment and reinforcement?

Answer 27

Reinforcement much more potent on influencing than punishment
punishment can only make response less frequent and you cant teach new behaviour

Question 28

What is operant extinction?

Answer 28

weakening and eventual disappearance of a response as it is no longer reinforced

resistance to extinction is the degree to which non-reinforced behaviour persists

Question 29

What makes behaviour more likely to be imitated?

Answer 29

1. reward is seen
2. high status e.g doctor carries out behaviour
3. similarity e.g colleagues
4. friendly behaviour e.g peers