Issues & Debates

Question 1

Define gender bias:

Answer 1

The differential representation of both genders (not acknowledging or exaggerating differences), where one gender is treated less favourably than the other.

Question 2

Define alpha bias:

Answer 2

Exaggerating differences between men and women.

Question 3

Define beta bias:

Answer 3

Minimising/ignoring differences between men and women.

Question 4

Define androcentrism:

Answer 4

‘Male centred’ or comparing all behaviour according to the male standard.

Question 5

2 examples of alpha bias:

Answer 5

• According to Freud females are failed males and don’t experience castration anxiety (Freud is also androcentric as women are literally defined as failed men)
• The sociobiological theory of relationship formation says that male sexual promiscuity is genetic as they need to reproduce as much as possible, whereas females are conscious of their limited egg supply

Question 6

2 examples of beta bias:

Answer 6

• Male rats are used in research as their hormones are more predictable. The findings were then universalised, making differences between genders minimised.
• Most early research e.g. Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo etc, used only male samples and then made general statements about behaviour e.g. people conform dues to NSI in an unambiguous situation. This shows that gender differences were ignored and is therefore subject to beta bias.

Question 7

1 positive of beta bias (a negative of alpha)

Answer 7

• Equal treatment of men and women e.g. in the legal system or employment (alpha bias often exaggerates differences and can lead to prejudice or stereotypical views about gender)

Question 8

1 negative of beta bias:

Answer 8

• There are clear physical and hormonal differences between men and women, so ignoring these can lead to the misrepresentation of both genders ( Milgram assumed that women would obey the same amount as men, but Sheridan + King found 54% of men giving the lethal shock whereas 100% females gave the shock). This shows that there are differences physiologically and psychologically between genders which should not be minimised or ignored.

Question 9

Define culture bias:

Answer 9

The findings of psychological research may only be applicable to the culture in which they were found.

Question 10

Statistics about culture in research:

Answer 10

• 64% of researchers in top journals are from the US
• Researchers like Asch and Milgram used all white male American Pps

Question 11

Emic vs Etic:

Answer 11

Emic = research conducted within the culture being studied e.g. research into European attachment types should take a more European perspective
Etic = research conducted outside the culture being studied (an imposed etic inappropriately applies findings from one culture to another)

Question 12

Define ethnocentrism:

Answer 12

Research is focuses on one cultural group which is regarded as ‘normal’ and uses one’s own culture as the standard on which to judge other cultures.

Question 13

Define cultural relativism:

Answer 13

The findings from one culture are only applicable to that specific cultural group (aims to avoid ethnocentrism)

Question 14

2 examples of culturally biased research:

Answer 14

• Ainsworth’s study was focused on American infants and mothers, and this methodology was used identically by Takahashi which was severely distressing for Japanese infants and the study had to stop early. This shows that there are cultural variations in attachments and that attachment studies are often ethnocentric to the US.
• Early IQ tests used in WW1 resulted in European and Afro-Caribbean soldiers scoring lower, and leading to the assumption that they are of lower intelligence. This research was ethnocentric as it assumed that all cultures knew about the history of the US had its presidents etc, which led to untrue stereotypes and increased discrimination.

Question 15

Define freewill and give 4 evaluation points:

Answer 15

The debate = the extent to which our behaviour is governed by forces over which we have no control or whether people can decide how to behave for themselves
Freewill = we have full autonomy over our behaviour

+ Studies individual differences ( humanism)
+ Fits with society’s view of responsibility e.g. you commit a crime, you get punished

• Impossible to scientifically test
• Freewill is subjective and Skinner argues that believing in freewill is just living in denial

Question 16

Define determinism and give the types:

Answer 16

Determinism = behaviour is either governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control

Environmental determinism = the behaviourist approach
Biological determinism = the biological approach
Psychic determinism = psychodynamic (behaviour is governed by unconscious forces)
Hard determinism = all behaviour has a cause and we have no freewill
Soft determinism = the middle-ground between freewill and determinism, where people have a certain amount of choice but it is restricted e.g. SLT says we learn through observation of the environment but acknowledges choices involved in mediational processes like attention and motivation.

Question 17

4 evaluation points:

Answer 17

+ Determinism is scientific and can be measured e.g. brain scans, laws of conditioning
+ Clear evidence in daily life

• Determinism is reductionist and too simplistic
• The issue of accountability (how do you punish criminals if they have no choice over their actions?)

Question 18

Define the nature nurture debate:

Answer 18

The extent to which our behaviour is determined by our biology or environmental factors.

Question 19

Rank the 6 approaches from nature to nurture:

Answer 19

Nature = 1 Nurture = 6
1) biological
2) psychodynamic
3) cognitive
4) humanism
5) SLT
6) behaviourism

Question 20

Examples of nature:

Answer 20

• Bowlby said that attachment was an evolutionary genetic advantage (nature)

Question 21

4 evaluation points:

Answer 21

+ Caregiving sensitivity hypothesis
+ Also accounts for environmental influences

• The transgenerational effect means that evolution can be caused by nurture e.g. if a women smokes during her pregnancy, the infant could be born with defects and consequences for later development
• Nature is just the consequence of nurture

Question 22

Examples of nurture:

Answer 22

Behaviourism and SLT can explain phobias, attachment and aggression

Question 23

2 evaluation points:

Answer 23

+ There is observable evidence that conditioning can alter behaviour, suggesting that Nature is a better explanation

• Even learning can be explained genetically and in the brain

Question 24

Conclusion of the nature nurture debate:

Answer 24

The interactionalist approach suggests that nature and nurture work together to produce behaviours e.g. the diathesis stress model says genetics can provide predisposition to certain mental disorders, but stressor in the environment activates the disorder. e.g. depression can be triggered because of the loss of a family member

Question 25

Define ethical implications:

Answer 25

Ethical implications consider the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the right of other people in a wider context, not just the people participating in the research

Question 26

How did Seiber and Stanley define social sensitivity?

Answer 26

Research which has potential social consequences for the participants, or the wider social group. They identified several concerns which such research; some studies gave status to prejudice and discrimination; others may be used for wrong purposes, and the validity of some findings could be presented as objective while fraudulent

Question 27

What 4 considerations did they come up with?

Answer 27

1) The research question should not impose prejudice or stereotypes

2) Information should remain confidential before, during, and after the research

3) If research is being funded by a body, then researched must ensure data is not being misused

4) Interpretations or findings should not have an impact on participants or groups of people the research represents.

Question 28

Examples of socially sensitive research:

Answer 28

• Early IQ tests represented American citizens to be more intelligent than other culture, as the methodology was not altered
• Milgram’s study into obedience was socially sensitive as many of the Pps were nervous, three even had seizures. Society also reacted badly and were shocked from the videos. However this socially sensitive research uncovered truths that made many people uncomfortable but the result show it is important for us to know.
• Loftus and Palmer’s study could also be considered socially sensitive as the participants were shown videos of car crashes which could have caused distress for some. It also had a dramatic social impact as the findings from the research as it showed how leading questions can distort memory and therefore questions the validity of eyewitness testimonies.
• Cyril Burt conducted twin studies to show that intelligence is genetic, which then influenced the development of the 11+ exam. It transpired later that he falsified all the data. It is socially sensitive as it greatly influenced the wider population and their views.

Question 29

Examples of positive social sensitivity:

Answer 29

Research into EWT led to the development of the cognitive interview

Research into the critical period and the caregiver sensitivity hypothesis has led to ch