Greek Religion

Question 1

What is polytheism

Answer 1

Polytheism

the belief and/or worship of more than one god

Question 2

who were the 12 Olympian Gods (including the 2 interchangeable ones)

Answer 2

Zeus

Hera

Poseidon

Athena

Artemis

Apollo

Aphrodite

Demeter

Hermes

Hephaestus

Ares

THEN EITHER

Hestia

OR

Dionysus

Question 3

why were the Olympian gods named Olympian

Answer 3

The traditional 12 Olympian gods were so named because they were believed to have lived on Mount Olympus in Northern Greece

Question 4

what was Zeus’ main responsibility

Answer 4

Main responsibility

Order, justice - king of the gods

Question 5

what was Hera’s main responsibility

Answer 5

Main responsibility

Marriage - wife of Zeus

Question 6

what was Poseidon’s main responsibility

Answer 6

Main responsibility

Sea and horses - brother of Zeus

Question 7

what was Athena’s main responsibility

Answer 7

Main responsibility

Wisdom, crafts, heroes - daughter of Zeus

Question 8

what was Artemis’ main responsibility

Answer 8

Main responsibility

Archery, maidens - twin of Apollo, daughter of Zeus

Question 9

what was Apollo’s main responsibility

Answer 9

Main responsibility

Sun, music, prophecy - twin of Artemis, son of Zeus

Question 10

what was Aphrodite’s main responsibility

Answer 10

Main responsibility

Beauty, love - born from Ouranos’ semen

Question 11

what was Demeter’s main responsibility

Answer 11

Main responsibility

Agriculture - Sister of Zeus

Question 12

what was Hermes’ main responsibility

Answer 12

Main responsibility

Messengers, travellers, merchants and thieves - son of Zeus

Question 13

what was Hephaestus’ main responsibility

Answer 13

Main responsibility

Blacksmiths - son of Zeus and Hera

Question 14

what was Ares’ main responsibility

Answer 14

Main responsibility

War - son of Zeus and Hera

Question 15

what was Hestia’s main responsibility

Answer 15

Main responsibility

Hearth - sister of Zeus

Question 16

what was Dionysus’ main responsibility

Answer 16

Main responsibility

Wine, theatre - son of Zeus

Question 17

what other major gods are not included in the Olympian 12

Answer 17

Hades - god of the Underworld and brother of Zeus and Poseidon - is not included because he did not live in Olympus

Persephone - daughter of Demeter and wife of Hades - is sometimes included because of her role in the Eleusinian Mysteries

for half the year Persephone lived with Hades in the Underworld

some sources include Hestia as part of the 12 gods while others include Dionysus - however both were key parts of religious life in ancient Greece

Question 18

what was the name of Zeus’ parents

Answer 18

Chronos and Rhea

Question 19

who gave birth to Chronos

Answer 19

Ouranos and Gaia

Question 20

who was Homer

Answer 20

Homer

date - 8th or 7th century BC

He is credited with composing the Iliad and the Odyssey

the Iliad takes place in the last year of the Trojan War and focuses on the anger of the Greek hero Achilles

The Odyssey traces Odysseus’ journey home from Troy to the island of Ithaca

Question 21

who was Hesiod

Answer 21

Hesiod

Date c 700 BC

An epic poet - his 2 main works are the Works and Days and the Theogony

Works and Days teaches farmers how to live good and productive lives

the Theogony describes the gods’ origins and family tree

Question 22

what is aetiology

Answer 22

Aetiology

the reason or cause for something - often deriving from a historical or mythical explanation

Question 23

explain the significance of homer and Hesiod for Greek ideas about the gods

Answer 23

Homer and Hesiod’s poems set out how the ancient Greeks perceived the gods during the 8th and 7th centuries BC

Their works were a major influence on Greek attitudes to the Olympians - these attitudes did not change in later periods

the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus wrote the influence of these 2 - he said they composed theogonies and described the gods for the Greeks - giving them their appropriate titles office and powers

Herodotus was writing as a researcher and historian - interested in the religious customs of Greeks and other peoples

His references to Homer and Hesiod demonstrate clearly the significance of these earlier poets had in teaching future generations about the gods

Question 24

what are the Homeric Hymns

Answer 24

the Homeric Hymns inform us what Greeks thought about the gods in around 700 BC - focusing on the creation of the gods

Like Hesiod’s Theogony - written a century or two later - the Homeric hymns frequently discuss the birth of the gods

they are called Homeric but were not composed by Homer - they were in the same style and tradition as Homer’s epics

they also explain the cause for the gods cults or their aetiology

Question 25

describe the Panathenaic Amphora figure 1.3 and 1.4 PS

Answer 25

Panathenaic Amphora

Date - 333-332 BC

Style - black figure

obverse - armed Athena striding forwards

Reverse - 3 athletes running

significance - reveals the goddess’ presence in Athens’ festival and her anthropomorphic depiction

she is depicted armed and striding forwards

she appears as an active goddess who both protects and punishes

her large size - emphasised by her head extending over the top border, depicts her larger-than-human power

such iconographies of Athena help explain why the Athenians worshipped her with an annual festival

Question 26

explain Athena’s representation in the Homeric Hymns and Hesiod’s Theogony

Answer 26

Athena is celebrated in Homeric Hymns 11 as the protectress of cities and fearsome - also ensures the army’s safe parting and homeward return

Athena’s birth is described in Homeric Hymns 28 - described as already in armour of war and as leaping from Zeus’ head to stand before him

this is likewise described in Hesiod’s Theogony with Athena standing fully armed besides a seated Zeus

very little in the understanding and depiction of Athena has changed since these archaic texts

much of the later images of Athena may be attributed to these poems - they were performed at the Panathenaic Festival

Question 27

explain the significance of Hesiod for Greek ideas about the gods

Answer 27

in his Works and Days Hesiod gives advice not only about when to perform certain agricultural tasks - but also about how to lead a morally good life

both of these things require the support of the gods

he emphasises the power of Zeus and the influence of his daughter Right, who personifies justice

Hesiod also gives advice on how to worship the gods - eg to wash your hands before pouring wine to the gods

there is little evidence that these customs changed significantly over time

through his Works and Days and Theogony Hesiod provides us with a description of the origins of the gods, why they are deserving of worship and how mortals should treat them

Question 28

explain the significance of Homer for Greek ideas about the gods

Answer 28

Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are set in the mythical world of heroes - and each poem tells an individual narrative

both stories focus strongly on mortals but deities play an equally significant role - as the Olympians involve themselves in mortal affairs

the gods are portrayed as very powerful - but also as governed by personal impulse and desire

they pick favourites whom they support and influence - they also cause harm to their enemies

Athena supports Achilles in the Iliad - in the final duel between Achilles and Hector she disguises herself as Hector’s brother, Deiphobus

This gives Hector the impression that he can rely on his brother’s help in the fight - in actual fact it isolates him and when he realises the god’s deceit he reflects on this

the gods are also at times used for light relief to contrast with the severity of the mortals’ situations

in book 1 of the Iliad Achilles and Agamemnon quarrel - Achilles anger has caused him to withdraw form the fight which will cause countless deaths to the Greek army

on Olympus Zeus and Hera also quarrel about the decision but the tension is broken when the lame Hephaestus bustles around serving drinks - causing laughter and hilarity among all the gods

the argument between Zeus and Hera is dispelled by Hephaestus who argues that their quarrel would ruin the gods’ feast

Divine immortality is strongly contrasted with human mortality - reminding us of the greatest difference between the two, death

Question 29

what is anthropomorphism

Answer 29

Anthropomorphism

the attribution of human characteristics and emotions to non-human forms

Question 30

explain the anthropomorphism of the gods and the scope of their power

Answer 30

the Olympian gods were usually depicted and described as anthropomorphic - but with powers that went significantly beyond those of humans

they therefore appear as humans physically and any study of Greek art shows them as such

the gods have the emotions and needs of humans such as jealousy, love, desire, hatred and hunger - this is particularly emphasised in Homer’s works

they were therefore anthropomorphic not only in appearance but also in character

myths associated with them see them behaving according to these feelings - such as in the foundation myth of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Zeus often fulfils the role of an arbitrator - but he too falls victim to his emotions - particularly his passion

eg when Zeus took the form of a swan and sleeps with a mortal woman Leda - they have 4 children including Helen of Troy

the gods also have clear preferences - particularly with mortals and heroes

Zeus favoured his son Heracles and welcomed him to Olympus as a demi-god after his labours

such anthropomorphic attributes and characteristics are clearly seen throughout Homer and Hesiod’s works

each god has his or her own individual preferences and emotions and acts in accordance with them

their human instincts are amplified by their divine powers

however the gods’ power and authority stretches beyond anything mortals can achieve - Hesiod describes Zeus’ power

Zeus has power over mankind and the elements

they are distinguished from mortals by their immortality and this is frequently emphasised in their descriptions in Homer

the gods’ eternal life and their immense power over the world distinguishes them from mortals

Question 31

what is the foundation myth of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 31

Hades the god of the Underworld is overcome with passion for Persephone, daughter of Demeter, goddess of agriculture

he seizes her and takes her to the underworld to be his wife

Demeter, utterly distraught by the loss of her daughter, travels the world to find her - abandoning her duties to crops

Zeus has to intervene so that Demeter can resume her responsibilities, crops can grow and people can live

Question 32

what is a votive offering

Answer 32

Votive offering

a dedication to a god by an individual as part of a contract or vow made between mortal and deity

Question 33

explain the reciprocal relationship between gods and mortals

Answer 33

the relationship between gods and mortals was reciprocal operating under a principle of “I give so that you might give”

the gods delighted in being honoured properly and in return valued and helped mortals for doing so

In Homer’s Iliad when Hector is about to die Zeus is mournful because he had always made so many sacrifices in his honour - making him loved by the king of the gods

in his Works and Days Hesiod teaches others how to honour the gods appropriately to delight them and receive support in return

the Greeks honoured their gods in a variety of ways - such as sacrifice, libations, prayers, and votive offerings

in return the gods would help them in every aspect of their lives - both personal such as marriage and health - and public such as war and city foundations

mortals were also rewarded for continuous piety and worship of the gods - divine favour was not based on single cases alone

we see in numerous 5th century tragedies that gods often punish mortals who do not worship them enough or at all - such as in Bacchae

the reciprocal relationship was based on honour - gods were worshipped and honoured because they deserved it and similarly mortals were protected and helped because they deserved it

there is a strong sense that the gods - and in particular Zeus - provided justice - Hesiod makes this clear in his Works and Days

the reciprocal relationship between gods and mortals was integral to the religion

the understanding behind it is equally significant - both sides deserved what they were getting from the relationship

Question 34

what is an epithet

Answer 34

Epithet

an adjective that accompanies someone’s name, which denotes a quality or characteristic about the individual

Question 35

what is the agora

Answer 35

Agora

the marketplace (common in Greek cities) where economic, political, social and religious events took place

Question 36

what is a phratry

Answer 36

Phratry

a “brotherhood” - a subdivision of the 4 old tribes of Athens which was carried over into the new democratic system after 508/7

Question 37

explain the epithet of Zeus Agoraios

Answer 37

Zeus Agoraios

in his guise as Zeus “of the agora” Zeus had oversight over those buying and selling goods, as well as ensuring that administration was just and that deals were sealed by swearing oaths

there was an altar if Zeus Agoraios in the Athenian agora

Zeus was also worshipped as god of oaths - Zeus Horkios

Question 38

explain the epithet of Zeus Phratrios

Answer 38

Zeus Phratrios

as well as belonging to one of ten tribes each Athenian citizen belonged to a smaller clan group called a phratry (brotherhood)

the patron deities of these phratries were Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria

legitimate sons were introduced to their father’s phratry within a year of their birth and then again when they were 16 years old when they also made sacrifices to Zeus Phratrios

Question 39

explain the epithet of Zeus Philios

Answer 39

Zeus Philios

Zeus Philios was a god of individual and household wellbeing, prosperity and purification, consulted usually on issues regarding property, marriage and childbirth

Question 40

explain the epithet of Zeus Herkeios

Answer 40

Zeus Herkeios

Zeus “of the fence/courtyard” was a protector of families

when individuals applied for magisterial posts, one of the questions they were asked in the interview was whether they were enrolled in the cult of Zeus Herkeios

as with many familial cults there was often a public counterpart - an altar of Zeus Herkeios stood on the Athenian Acropolis

Question 41

what is an oracle

Answer 41

Oracle

a person or an agency that provides advice or guidance about the future through prophetic power believed to derive from the gods

Question 42

describe the different roles contexts and functions of the Olympians and the extent to which these were thought of as distinct separate entities

Answer 42

each god had a variety of different areas of influence

Zeus was associated with kings, the marketplace, property, domestic wealth, weather, strangers, beggars, supplication and laws

due to this breadth of influence the gods were worshipped in a specific capacity - an epithet - a title that accompanied their name and specified which aspect of the god was being summoned and worshipped

the variety of epithets provided a challenge for worshippers

many of the oracular tablets found at the sanctuary of Zeus in Dodona ask the oracle which god they should worship in a particular situation - the same is true for Delphi

there is much evidence that suggests that a typical approach was to worship groups of deities to cover all the bases - especially concerning childbirth

Question 43

what is heroisation

Answer 43

Heroisation

the process by which a living person becomes a hero/is made a hero

Question 44

explain the role and nature of hero cults

Answer 44

the pantheon of Greek gods was not an absolute entity but was rather permeable - with deities joining at various occasions and somewhat unclear boundaries between the gods, demi-gods (heroes, nymphs, fates, muses etc) and the mortals

Famous heroes such as Heracles and Achilles were often worshipped and much liked by the Greeks

a hero is a person who had lived and died

a hero could be a mythical person who had lived as long ago as Achilles and was known only from myths - or someone a person had known in person during their lifetime who was then deified once dead

the hero was worshipped in a way that went far beyond the usual rites surrounding burial and extended to an official level

to become a hero one had to have achieved something unusual in one’s lifetime - this could be something positive or negative

hero cults were widespread in Greece from the Archaic period onwards with Heracles being the most popular hero

most heroes were worshipped at one specific location only

they are worshipped with rites similar to gods - with an animal sacrifice at its centre and the consumption of the sacrificial meat

Heracles and the hero-doctor Asclepius were exceptions in that they were worshipped throughout the Greek world and worshipped as both hero and god

Question 45

what is Panhellenic

Answer 45

Panhellenic

literally all Greeks

Panhellenic sanctuaries were open to all Greeks

Question 46

what is a deme

Answer 46

Deme

a village or district which was the smallest political constituency in the Athenian democratic system

Question 47

explain the extent to which worship of the gods and heroes was Panhellenic, localised or personal

Answer 47

the worship of the gods could be Panhellenic, localised or personal - the epithet changes to distinguish the god from their other roles

Apollo Agyeios was a household deity but Pythian Apollo was worshipped by Greeks from all over the world at Delphi

even without a Panhellenic sanctuary gods could be worshipped all over Greece

heroes could also serve multiple functions

Heracles was often worshipped as a household god and his statue stood outside many homes to ward off evil - he was also worshipped at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia - especially by athletes both because his strength and endurance inspired their training and because he was the founder of the Games

there were however some gods and heroes who had a purely local significance

sacrificial calendars record mention of worship of an aspect of a god or hero that is not known elsewhere - this is an indication that local divinities existed

gods and heroes could also be worshipped on a very personal level - usually through mysteries where individuals chose to take part in the cults, through healing cults or through oracular consultation

Question 48

what was the Thesmophoria

Answer 48

Thesmophoria

an Athenian festival reserved only for female citizens celebrating fertility

Question 49

explain individual experience and the divine

Answer 49

the individual dimension to religion becomes particularly clear when studying mystery cults

healing gods such as Asclepius mostly catered to each individual’s request rather than to the good of a community

a similarly personal dimension can be ascribed to hero cults which often established on a local level

individuals could also take part in cults where the personal experience was what mattered

these could be mystery cults in which a person was initiated into a cult or oracular cults in which individuals sought consultation - which may be seen as a form of direct communication with the gods when in need of guidance

worshippers consciously chose to be initiated into a mystery cult for a variety of reasons

heroes dealt with individuals and their pledges in a much more personal way than that offered by the sacrifices and festivals of the cities

Question 50

what is initiation

Answer 50

Initiation

individual admission into a cult bound to specific rules and regulations

Question 51

explain mystery cults

Answer 51

mystery may be related to the greek word for an initiate - mystes

Mysteries could be held as a public festival in a city

not everyone became a mystes automatically because the process involved a conscious decision to undergo a ceremonial initiation into a cult while promising to keep secret what was experienced during the ceremony

scholars assume that most mysteries followed a specific initiatory structure of some duration similar to Eleusis

here the initiation included a preparation - involving ritual cleansing and fasting - and an individual experience which ended with the revelation of the secret - epopteia

at the end of the initiation in the case of Eleusis was the offer of eternal life in the Elysian Fields after the initiate’s death

the evidence for these cults is often unclear and not easy to interpret but we can reconstruct the Eleusinian Mysteries owing to what sources we have - this can give us a good idea of what ancient Greek mysteries might have looked like generally

Question 52

what is epopteia

Answer 52

Epopteia

revelation of the secret at the end of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Question 53

what were the Elysian Fields

Answer 53

Elysian Fields

mythical place, conception of afterlife initially reserved for gods, heroes and mortals related to them

Question 54

describe the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 54

best known and best recorded of all mystery cults in ancient Greece

the mysteries were unlike any other Greek religious festival but were incorporated into the Athenian civic religion as a regular part of the sacred calendar from the late 6th century onwards

the secret has been more or less kept over the years - perhaps one factor in the ongoing fascination of the mysteries

this secret was shared in a ceremony at the end of the festival but never actually revealed to the uninitiated

revealing the secret to the non-initiated or writing or speaking about it in public was a capital crime - one punished by the death penalty

Question 55

how did the Eleusinian Mysteries stand out from other civic festivals that the Athenians celebrated

Answer 55

anybody could be initiated whether man or woman, free or slave, young or old, Greek or non-Greek, so long as they spoke Greek and had not been involved in serious crimes (murder) - this was unique for a Greek festival

every participant able to pay a contribution could take part in an individual initiation after which his or her status changed from being uninitiated to initiated - this status lasted for life

the initiated were not allowed to speak about what happened - in particular the revelation of the secret - this created a distinction between those who knew and those who did not

Question 56

explain the historical and mythical background to the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 56

Eleusis is approx 15 miles west of Athens on the coast overlooking the bay and the island of Salamis

Eleusis was independent but become part of Athens in 7th century BC

the site is most famous for hosting the mysteries of Demeter and Persephone - an ancient festival in celebration of the two goddesses which was linked to a myth

according to the legend in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter Demeter’s daughter Persephone was abducted by Hades who brought her to the Underworld where he married her

after failing to find her daughter in a day-long search all over the world Demeter decided to rest at Eleusis

disguised as an old mortal woman the goddess stayed at the Palace of Keleus and Metaneira - the king and queen of Eleusis

due to her mourning over the loss of her daughter she neglected her duties as goddess of fertility

after a year of drought Demeter was sought out by the other Olympian gods who begged her to return to her duties as goddess of fertility before humankind would die out by starvation

Demeter wishing to know who was responsible for the abduction of her daughter convinced Helios to tell her the truth - that Zeus the father of Persephone had given up his daughter for marriage to his brother Hades, god of the underworld

as a solution Zeus ordered a compromise that both Hades and Demeter obeyed

Persephone was allowed to dwell among the other gods for two thirds of the year in spring and summer - if in return she stayed with Hades in the Underworld for the last third of the year in winter

on discovery of her true identity Demeter ordered Metaneira and Keleus to build a temple in her honour in Eleusis

in return she taught them the rites and initiatory rituals which should be performed from then on at Eleusis but kept secret from all uninitiated

Question 57

explain the literary sources on the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 57

most of our knowledge about Greek mystery cults derives from allusions to the ritual and from second-hand sources since those initiated were not allowed to speak about the actual initiation to those uninitiated

there are some Archaic and Classical sources that gives us important insights into the ritual and its gain for humankind

Aristophanes in Frogs takes a humorous approach to the idea of the mysteries and afterlife

Question 58

explain the archaeology of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 58

the earliest identifiable building in this complex of Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis dates to the Geometric period - 900-850 BC

The Telesterion (from the Greek word for making perfect or complete) was renovated and enlarged several times until the currently still visible version

this version was built at the bidding of Pericles in the second half of the 5th century

The Telesterion was a rectangular hall with rock-cut stands for spectators and those to be initiated and a rooftop

Question 59

describe the Ninnion tablet figure 1.10 PS

Answer 59

The Ninnion tablet

400-300 BC

Style - red-figure plaque

main image - depiction of the cult of Eleusis from left to right - initiates led by the god Iacchus are approaching the seated goddesses Demeter and Persephone

significance - key visual source for the reconstruction of the ritual taking place at the Eleusinian Mysteries

the image depicts a male figure with a torch in either hand and identified as the god Iacchus - a god somehow related to and sometimes assimilated with Dionysus - leading a group of initiates identifiable by the typical myrtle leaf crown on their heads towards the seated goddesses Demeter and Kore

it has been argued that this scene depicts the climax of the initiation - the revelation of the secret being an epiphany of the deities in a nocturnal and perhaps underworld environment - hence the necessity of torches

Question 60

explain the festival and procession of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 60

we know most about the festival and the procession as we have a large amount of evidence

two ceremonies took place each year from the 6th century onwards

the “Lesser Mysteries” were celebrated in spring - these are seen by some as a preparatory event for participants in the “Great Mysteries” which were held in autumn

The Great Mysteries were celebrated over a period of nine days

on the first day of the celebrations around 3,000 people - both already initiated and therefore also able to initiate others (mystagogues) - and those wishing to be initiated (mysts) - assembled in the Athenian agora

they were instructed by the archon basileus - the highest official responsible for all religious matters in Athens

on the next day the whole group including sacrificial animals - most likely piglets - arched to the seaside to bathe together as a purification ritual

This was followed by a three day period of rest

on the fourth day the group assembled again in the agora and formed a procession which was led by priests and priestesses who carried the sacred objects on their 15 mile long journey to Eleusis

it took the best part of the day to arrive at Eleusis as the journey was interrupted by sacred dances, libations, sacrifices, singing of hymns and playing of flutes

it was a colourful and varied event

during the journey the roles were reversed and the young mocked the old as part of the ritual

various deities were worshipped such as Aphrodite and Iacchus (the leader god of the initiates) and people from various backgrounds mixed with each other

in the evening they arrive at Eleusis where the special priests of the mysteries - the hierophants - led all ritualistic activity

what happened next is not known exactly

over the next 2 days the initiation took place in two grades - a lower and a higher grade

part of the preparation had included fasting and drinking of a special brew - kykeon - perhaps to make mysts more susceptible to a revelatory experience - a sharpening or emphasising of the senses

special emphasis was given to the re-living of the myth of the two goddesses - including Demeter’s suffering at the loss of her daughter and her search in the dark with only a torch - which was perhaps simulated at the sanctuary as part of the initiation

it has also been suggested that part of the experience was the simulation of one’s own death to prepare the individual for what good they would encounter with a finale of blinding light at the Telesterion

the ceremonies ended with the initiation into the higher grade and the revelation of the mystery - the epopteia meaning the viewing in the Telesterion of Eleusis

Question 61

what is a mystagogue

Answer 61

Mystagogue

already-initiated person who is also able to initiate others

Question 62

what is a myst

Answer 62

Myst

person wishing to be initiated or in the process of being initiated

Question 63

what is the archon basileus

Answer 63

archon basileus

King Archon responsible for all things sacred in Athens

Question 64

what is a hierophant

Answer 64

Hierophant

leading priest at the Eleusinian Mysteries - always drawn from the Eumolpidae family

Question 65

what was kykeon

Answer 65

Kykeon

brew made from barley and pennyroyal - which is said to have had psychotropic effects

Question 66

describe the healing cult of Asclepius

Answer 66

there are many versions of the myths about Asclepius

in Homer Iliad he is defined as a hero - taught by the centaur Chiron and named the blameless physician - he brings his sons along to help heal the most seriously wounded of the Greek warriors

in other versions he was the son of Apollo and a mortal mother whose identity depended on where the story was located

his cult spread widely from early on - therefore he was soon perceived and worshipped as a god rather than a hero

his popularity can be easily explained by his nature as a healer

his cultic worship soared during times of epidemics - it is no coincidence that the Athenians erected a new Asclepieion - a sanctuary of Asclepius - in around 420, only a few years after a plague had devastated the city

the 2 most famous sanctuaries dedicated to the worship of Asclepius date back to the 5th century BC

they are indicative of Asclepius’ function as a hero or rather a physician during his mythical life time and a god with divine powers after his death - as both combine worship with actual practical help for those seeking cure

the Asclepieion at Epidaurus was a centre for pilgrims seeking cure from a wide range of illnesses

these patients were coming form all over Greece - as the inscriptions they left thanking the god show

The sanctuary of Asclepius on the island of Cos was also a famous school for physicians

both sanctuaries were frequented by worshippers from all over Greece - some came to thank the god for a cure already received - while others approached the god seeking cure at the sanctuaries

most of the evidence for the cult of Asclepius has come down to us in the form of votive offerings thanking the god for a cure from illness

Question 67

what was incubation

Answer 67

Incubation

sleeping in the shrines of Asclepius

Question 68

explain the worship of Asclepius

Answer 68

a typical visit to a sanctuary of Asclepius included preparatory bathing, sacrifices and sleeping in a stoa of the sanctuary - known as incubation - or under the open sky

the length of a stay at the sanctuaries depended on the nature of the individual’s illness and the success of the recovery

individuals could be cured by the god instantly during their sleep at the sanctuary - through surgery as instructed by the god and exercised by the temple physicians - or through prescription of medicine or a specific diet and exercise received in dreams during the incubation

next the bathing and healing facilities the snakes of the god were kept - their poison supposedly curing several illnesses

Question 69

explain the anatomical votive relief from Asclepius Shrine figure 1.12 PS

Answer 69

Anatomical votive relief from the shrine of Asclepius on the island of Melos

Date - 1st century AD

Style - relief

Material - marble relief

Significance - An important example of a votive offering to Asclepius after cure was received in one of his sanctuaries

this offering was made by Tyche to Asclepius and his Hygeia - very probably at the occasion of the healing of a leg wound or broken leg

Question 70

explain the worship of Asclepius and Miracles

Answer 70

Miraculous deeds allegedly performed by the gods were common throughout antiquity - many of them rooted in personal devotion

often these miracles were recorded in votive inscriptions to healing deities such as Asclepius - expressing gratitude for a miraculous recovery

this display of miracles became more important over the course of time as miracle proved deity and therefore helped to promote and legitimise a new or recently introduced cult such as the cult of Asclepius

the inscriptions which recorded such miracles were then proudly displayed at the sanctuary

at Oropos - on the border between Attica and Boeotia- in Attica there was another healing sanctuary dedicated to a local god or hero Amphiareios

the sanctuary was called Amphiareion

enquiries about healing procedures at this sanctuary were made through incubation

according to Pausanias worshippers and prospective incubants were required to sleep on the skin of a sacrificed ram

the archaeological and epigraphic evidence from the sanctuary informs us of a temple, an altar inscribed with the names of 14 different gods and heroes, a koimeterion used for incubation, a theatre building, separate bath buildings for men and women and a fountain house

Question 71

who was Herodotus

Answer 71

Herodotus

date - 484-425

historian and writer

regarded as many to be the father of history

Herodotus was born in the city of Halicarnassus on the western coast of Asia minor - modern day Turkey

he wrote his Histories - literally his researches - the first recorded attempt to write a history of past events - in the third quarter of the 5th century

his main focus was the causes and course of the Persian wars which lasted from 499 to 479

Question 72

who was Xenophon

Answer 72

Xenophon

date - 430 -354

historian and biographer

he wrote about the events and society of his own time - including the final decade of the 5th century and the early decades of the 4th century

he most notably wrote about the final years of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta - and about an unsuccessful campaign he participated in to help Cyrus the Younger seize the Persian throne

upon returning from this campaign he was exiled by Athens and went to live in Sparta - where he wrote his histories and among other things about Spartan laws and customs

Question 73

explain the Oracle at Dodona and the nature of advice sought by private individuals from the oracle

Answer 73

the oracle of Zeus at Dodona was less well-known than Delphi - but equally important and much frequented by individuals from all over Greece

Dodona was supposedly the oldest oracular sanctuary in Greece

Herodotus and Hesiod mention that oracular responses emanated from the rustling leaves of the sacred oak or from doves sitting in the tree

in Homer Odysseus claimed to have gone to Dodona in order to hear Zeus’ will from the lofty oak

from the 5th century onwards the enquirer scratched his question on a lead tablet that was then answered by the oracle

the oracular tablets found at the sanctuary of Dodona are very informative - they contain questions that were asked by individual consultants - and they comprise an important source for our understanding of personal religion and individual concerns

most common was the question which god should I pray to - this was a standard inquiry that individuals made at the oracles

only rarely do we get records of the actual advice given by the god - most commonly the oracle answered with a yes or no or it simply gave the name of the correct deity to worship at the specific instance

the largest category of oracular questions from Dodona concerns travel and moving places - it seems as if these two categories were causes for great concern and anxiety

the problem with this kind of evidence is that it gives us a glimpse of the individual’s fate and concerns - but never the context

in some cases individuals are named - and sometimes the consultants names appear as well

most questions however are anonymous but address crucial questions for the individual’s life

offspring - usually the number of children and their well-being - were of great concern to consultants - as well as concerns about marriage and a woman’s value in terms of property and capacity to bear children

further questions concerned work and professional success - and these can be specific

slaves asked about the possibility of freedom

other questions concern individual peoples health and which god to pray to to receive cure - whether to obtain property - undertake a campaign etc

this all shows that the authority of the oracular gods was largely respected by both individuals and the state

the advice of the oracular gods was very important for any concern - small or large

the popularity and importance of the oracle at Dodona suggests that some of the advice was useful and led to success or interpreted as such

Question 74

what was a polis

Answer 74

Polis

a Greek word often translated as city-state - referring to a city and all the land it controlled as one political entity

Question 75

what was an oikos

Answer 75

Oikos

the family, the household or the home

Question 76

explain household religious participation

Answer 76

Household religious participation took place in the oikos

the head of the house was always the eldest male figure - typically the father

religious authority lay with him and he acted as the priest and overseer of the household rituals

everyday he would make offerings to the three main household gods

Zeus Ktesios

Zeus Herkeios

Apollo Agyeios

there were 2 further household religious areas that protected the home - one inside and the other outside

the Hearth
the Herm

within the household members of the family had different duties

the father had the most duties - tending to the household cults

he was also responsible for tending to the family tombs - both in terms of their physical appearance and in terms of rituals that accompanied the honours given to the dead

offerings of garlands and libations of milk and honey were offered once a year at the gravesite in the name of the deceased

the son was welcomed into his father’s phratry during a 3 day festival in honour of Zeus Phratrios called the Apatouris

Question 77

explain the epithet Zeus Ktesios

Answer 77

one of the three main household gods which the eldest male figure would make daily offerings to

Zeus Ktesios

Protector of property and wealth

a depiction of Zeus Ktesios would likely have been kept in the storeroom

he was represented by a two-handled vase draped in a white woollen ribbon, filled with seeds, water and olive oil

the father would pray to him for health and good property

Question 78

explain the epithet Zeus Herkeios

Answer 78

one of the three main household gods that the eldest male figure would make daily offerings to

Zeus Herkeios

Zeus of the fence protected the enclosure of the house and his statue therefore stood in the courtyard around which the house was structured

he was often depicted with a snake to ward off evil

Question 79

explain the epithet of Apollo Agyeios

Answer 79

Apollo Agyeios

unlike Zeus Herkeios who protected the house from within Apollo Agyeios protected it from outside the main door to the house

he was represented by a statuette, by a small pillar or by a statue of Heracles

Question 80

what was the Hearth

Answer 80

The Hearth was a household religious area that protected the home

every household had a central hearth - dedicated to Hestia goddess of the Hearth

while Zeus Herkeios represented the home to the outside she does that for the family themselves

new members of the family such as babies, new brides or slaves, were welcomed into the home with a small ceremony of walking around the fire, showered by dried fruits and nuts

Question 81

what was the Herm

Answer 81

The Herm was a household religious area that protected the home

Herms were a rectangular pillar with the bearded head of the god Hermes at the top and an erect phallus at the appropriate position further down

they stood as halfway markers on roads and as a protective symbol outside houses

Question 82

explain the role of women in household religious participation

Answer 82

the women of the household had different roles

despite the fact that they had very limited political and legal rights - and in Athens were not even considered full citizens - their exclusion from household cults is unexpected - we would assume that their role was tied to the house

instead their main religious participation was as priestesses for state cults or in communal civic cults

as young girls they could take part in a series of cults

once married women could take part in festivals such as the Thesmophoria - a woman-only festival in honour of Demeter and Kore - or the Eleusinian Mysteries

women were also responsible for performing the appropriate rites when someone died by tending to the corpse

Question 83

what was Arrephoros

Answer 83

Arrephoros

this was a secret ritual performed in May associated with the temple of Athena Polias - Athena of the city

the arrephoroi - the two maidens chosen each year - carried a basket on their heads - given to them by Athena but they did not know what it contained

they took it form nearby the temple of Athena on the Acropolis through an underground passage to the sanctuary of Aphrodite in the Gardens

they left the basket there and took something else back

Question 84

what was a Grinder

Answer 84

Grinder

these girls ground the meal for the cakes which would be offered to Athena on her altar at various occasions such as at the Panathenaic Festival

Question 85

what was the Artemis Brauronia

Answer 85

this ritual was required for all Athenian girls before they could marry

there was a sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron south-west of Athens

girls would dress up like bears at the festival

Question 86

what was a basket-bearer

Answer 86

Probably refers to the baskets carrying sacrificial implements at occasions such as the Panathenaic Procession

Question 87

explain deme religious procession

Answer 87

Athens was separated into demes

each deme had its own set of religious festivals - organised in a sacred calendar

these differed between demes and although there were certain gods or heroes that were specific to individual demes there were also many common festivals

the sacrifice of animals was paid for by wealthier demesmen

in the deme Erchia they record worship of six Apollos - defined by an epithet or locale

there were also the names of 3 local heroes who are unattested elsewhere

there was a wide range of gods and heroes worshipped in each deme

priests of these cults might also represent the deme at festivals that took place in Athens

participation in local religious events did not exclude them from state ones - just as they would be performing their household offerings at the same time

rural demes would honour gods relevant to their livelihoods

Erchia was in the countryside and they would celebrate festivals in honour of Demeter - goddess of agriculture - such as Proerosia - a pre-ploughing festival

these festivals therefore served a practical purpose - but individuals enjoyed fun and celebration at them as well

Question 88

explain polis religious participation

Answer 88

polis religious participation directed its prayers and worship to the welfare of the polis as a whole

they were paid for with state funds, organised by state officials and for the most part were open to all citizens

the city funded the temples, sacrifices, festivals and dedications

its purpose was not only to honour the gods but also to draw the community together and create a sense of patriotism and civic pride

Polis religion has links with household religion - the worship of Hestia and the hearth is seen in both contexts - a polis hearth was setup in the Athenian agora

polis religion also had links with deme or local religious cults

the Eleusinian Mysteries were performed at Eleusis - an Athenian deme which had a prominent sanctuary to Demeter and Persephone

the Athenians built a city Eleusinion to correspond to the sanctuary at Eleusis on the slopes of the Acropolis

they even integrated this into the worship by gathering here before starting the procession to Eleusis

Question 89

what god was worshipped at Delphi

Answer 89

Pythian Apollo

Question 90

what is the meaning of the epithet Pythian Apollo

Answer 90

Apollo who slew Pytho - a mythical snake that terrorised the are

worshipped at Delphi

Question 91

what is the name of the Panhellenic Games held in Delphi

Answer 91

Pythian Games

Question 92

what god was worshipped at Olympia

Answer 92

Olympian Zeus

Question 93

what is the meaning of the epithet Olympian Zeus

Answer 93

Zeus of Olympus - the mountains in northern Greece where the gods lived

Question 94

what is the name of the Panhellenic Games held at Olympia

Answer 94

Olympian Games

Question 95

what god was worshipped at Nemea

Answer 95

Nemean Zeus

Question 96

what is the meaning of the epithet Nemean Zeus

Answer 96

Zeus of Nemea

Question 97

what is the name of the Panhellenic Games held at Nemea

Answer 97

Nemean Games

Question 98

what god was worshipped at Isthmus

Answer 98

Isthmian Poseidon

Question 99

what is the meaning of the epithet Isthmian Poseidon

Answer 99

Poseidon of the Isthmus

Question 100

what is the name of the Panhellenic Games held at Isthmus

Answer 100

Isthmian Games

Question 101

explain religious authority and where religious authority lay

Answer 101

Religious authority is difficult to distinguish from political or civic authorities

individuals who held a religious post or had a religious responsibility often also held positions in other spheres of civic or domestic life

in the domestic context religious authority lay with the male head of the house - the oldest or most senior man presided over domestic religious rites

in Athens the religious authority lay with the people - the demos - but it was organised supervised and carried out by a range of personnel.

priests were an integral part of Greek religion - carrying out the rites sacred to their respective cults

there were also a number of officials who supervised the performance of rites - as well as civic magistrates who were responsible for religious festivals

both priests and priestesses existed in ancient Greece - each serving in the worship of gods and goddesses respectively - though there were occasions where a priestess served a male god - such as the Pythia who served Apollo at Delphi

their role and authority lay with overseeing rituals such as sacrifices libations and prayers - as well as taking care of the sanctuary of the god to whom they were assigned

this included looking after the cult statue, the temple and other cult-buildings

they were also responsible for the finances of the sanctuary and the safety of the worshippers inside it

however it was up to the state to determine how much money priests should be given to carry out these duties and whether they were performing their jobs appropriately

priests were NOT a separate caste to the rest of society - despite some priesthoods being restricted to certain families

civic officials and magistrates also had religious authority - further challenging the notion that religious civic and political roles were distinguished

in Athens three archons each had religious roles

additionally epimeletai (overseers) were individually appointed in Athens for particular festivals - originally these overseers had to pay for the processions but by the second half of the 4th century these were paid for by state funds

the festivals often celebrated the polis as well as the gods

it is difficult to determine who had religious authority as it was dealt out among a variety of people

priests and priestesses seem to have had jurisdiction over their specific cults and respective sanctuaries - however civic officials often supervised festivals in honour of these gods

more political figures played a significant role in religious festivals and rituals as well - showing politics and religion are difficult to separate

Question 102

what was an archon

Answer 102

Archon

an Athenian magistrate

Question 103

who were the overseers of the Eleusinian Mysteries

Answer 103

4 epimeletai were appointed for the Eleusinian Mysteries

2 of them were from the 2 priestly families who had hereditary responsibilities in the cult of Demeter and Persephone, the descendants of Eumolpos and heralds

Question 104

what was the responsibility of the overseers of the Athena Parthenos

Answer 104

the epimeletai for the Athena Parthenos had a mostly financial jurisdiction

Question 105

what was the role of the Archon Basileus in Athens

Answer 105

the Archon Basileus was the main religious official of the Athenian state

his role included responsibility over the religious calendar and he had judicial authority over religious matters - such as conflicts and arbitrations involving priests or presiding over impiety trials

he was also responsible for all sacrifices that involve “ancestral cults” - cults whose antiquity was guaranteed by tradition

these included the Eleusinian Mysteries

Question 106

what was the role of the eponymous Archon in Athens

Answer 106

the eponymous archon - after whom the year was named - had authority over the civic festivals - such as the City Dionysia

Question 107

what was the role of the Polemarch in Athens

Answer 107

the Polemarch was the war archon and was in charge of cults that were related to military affairs

this included the public funeral in honour of the Athenian war dead

Question 108

what is miasma

Answer 108

Miasma is impiety or pollution in relation to the gods

it was a serious offence in ancient Greek religion and society

it was considered a dishonour and disrespect to the gods and as such individuals and whole communities could be punished for it

Question 109

list the ways in which sometime could be polluted - miasma

Answer 109

for women after giving birth - still birth - loss of a foetus or abortion and in some instances while menstruating although rarely

through being physically dirty

through not honouring the gods in the right manner on the right days

by disrespecting the ancestral laws of burial

by disrespecting someone’s right to asylum - safe refuge within a sanctuary

through sexual intercourse

by attending a funeral or being in the presence of a dead body

through murder

by entering the home of a woman who had just given birth

Question 110

how could one purify oneself of pollution or miasma

Answer 110

individuals could purify themselves by following specific rites according to how they became polluted

if they were merely dirty they could sprinkle some water on themselves in the basin that was normally situated at the entrance of a sanctuary

if the polluted had been in the presence of a woman giving birth they could not enter a sanctuary for a certain amount of days

if the individual had committed murder they had to undergo a ritual of purification

during this time the polluted could not attend sacrifices libations or contests in honour of the gods and couldn’t enter the sanctuaries - they were excluded from civic worship

it was the responsibility of the polis to uphold these standards

Question 111

what was a stoa

Answer 111

stoa

a colonnaded portico where people could take shelter from rain wind and sun, and which could also house shops inside

Question 112

what was a trireme

Answer 112

Trireme

the state-of-the-art warship of the 5th century Greek world

Question 113

explain the links between politics and religion

Answer 113

there was such a significant overlap between the civic and religious sphere that it is difficult to distinguish the two

cities had their patron deities and often heroes who protected them

Athens was under the patronage of Athena - during festivals in her honour the city celebrated Athena - but they also celebrated Athens itself

most political decisions were made with religious consultations

peace treaties were sworn by oaths to the gods - Zeus being the god of oaths

they were accompanied by libations or sacrifices

when cities made war the gods were consulted as well

divine consultation was therefore not merely a formality but vital for making decisions

military victories were likewise celebrated with the gods in mind

political and military decisions and celebrations were inextricable with what we would call religion

political institutions such as law courts relied upon religion as well

the opening ceremony of the Athenian assembly meeting began with the sacrifice of a piglet whose blood was spattered over the assembly members - religious items were privileged and they were dealt with first at 2 of the 4 monthly meetings of the assembly

law courts not only had jurisdiction over political and civic matters but also over sacred ones

civic funds were housed in treasuries and sacred buildings - The Parthenon stored the money Athens gathered from her allies each year

in Sparta as well religious and political powers were connected

Herodotus tells us that Spartan kings were considered to be godlike - as their dual kingship was believed to have derived from Zeus’ twin sons the Dioskouri

they were also believed to be descendants of Heracles

the kings were not only leaders of the political and social structure of Sparta but were also joint commanders of the Spartan army

they performed all the public sacrifices on the cities behalf and could consult the oracles whenever they wished

their political and military authority was therefore inextricably linked with their religious position

a sacred wall - a temenos - designated the borders of sanctuaries - however other sacred spaces were open

the political centre of cities was often also where many religious buildings were

numerous buildings also served both political and religious purposes

in Athens the polis’ sacred flames where Hestia was worshipped were guarded at the centre of the city at the agora

Question 114

what was a hecatomb

Answer 114

Hecatomb

a great public sacrifice of 100 oxen

Question 115

what was an acropolis

Answer 115

Acropolis

a citadel or summit of a city, typically built on a hill

Question 116

what was the Propylaia

Answer 116

Propylaia

elaborate entrance gateway onto the Athenian Acropolis

Question 117

what was the Panathenaia

Answer 117

The Panathenaia was a festival celebrated annually in honour of the patron goddess of Athens - Athena

every 4 years the Great Panathenaia was held which was a grander version of the Lesser Panathenaia held annually and included an elaborate procession and hecatomb

Question 118

explain the procession which took place during the Great Panathenaia

Answer 118

the Great Panathenaia started with a procession - a pompe - that gathered by the Dipylon Gate on the outskirts of the city

this procession grew to be so big over time that a special building - the Pompeion - was constructed

the procession started at the Dipylon Gate - processed through the kerameikos, an area of the city which contained the ancient cemetery - through the agora and up to the Acropolis via the Propylaia

the road they walked on was called the Panathenaic Way and it was wide to accommodate the crowds, cavalry and a boat - which was rolled up to the foothills of the Acropolis

the procession was such a significant part of Athenian religion and civic life that it was the inspiration for the frieze of the Parthenon

the sculpture includes the gathering horsemen - who represent the aristocracy of Athens - elder citizens, women and animals for sacrifice and ritual objects

this range of participants indicates how unifying the festival was and how the polis religious events caused civic pride

it also shows the climax of the festival - the presentation of the peplos to Athena on the central part of the eastern side - the side from which one enters the Parthenon

the 12 Olympian gods are depicted on either side of this presentation scene - the recipients of the worship

this was the 1st time that a scene portraying a real-life event was depicted on a temple - this further highlights just how significant this procession and festival was for the Athenians

Question 119

what was a peplos

Answer 119

Peplos

a rectangular piece of clothing worn by women, folded down from the neck and belted and tied or sown at the shoulder but sleeveless

Question 120

explain the presentation of the peplos during the Great Panathenaia

Answer 120

the festival marked the birthday of Athena Polias - Athena of the city - and a focal part of the celebration was the presentation of her birthday gift - she was given a peplos - a style of dress she was always depicted in

the ergastinai - maidens from aristocratic families - wove it each year

the saffron-dyed peplos was decorated with a scene showing Athena’s duel with the giant Encelados - whom she defeated in the battle between the gods and the giants

the peplos was thereafter presented to the goddess and was draped on the olive-wood cult statue of Athena Polias that stood in the east room of the Erechtheion

for the Great Panathenaia a second much larger peplos was woven by professional male weavers and showed Zeus and Athena together

this bigger peplos was used as a sail on a wooden ship that was rolled up to the Acropolis during the procession

Athens’ naval power and strength was hereby also celebrated and associated with the patron goddess

this peplos may have been used to drape the gold and ivory statue of Athena in the Parthenon

this votive dedication symbolised the city’s thanks to the goddess for her help and protection

the gift unified all members of Athenian society in a way no other festival or occasion did

Question 121

explain the sacrifices that took place during the Great Panathenaia

Answer 121

after the presentation of the peplos the polis celebrated and honoured Athena with sacrifices

civic officials such as he archons, generals and Athenians who participated in the procession were given their portions of the meat on the Acropolis

civic officials dined in special rooms inside the Pompeion

the distribution of the remaining sacrificial meat occurred in the kermeikos - an area on the outskirts of the city - among men of the various demes who participated in the procession and sacrifice

these sacrifices were paid for either directly by the city or by imposing liturgies - financial obligations - on rich Athenians and foreign residents

the distribution of sacrificial meat is reflective of the democratic nature of Athens - all citizens were entitled to a portion - all at public expense

this was highly valued and prized considering that meat was not a regular part of an ancient Greek diet because it was expensive

honouring the goddess by sharing the meat sacrificed to her was another unifying civic experience as communal eating brings people together in shared enjoyment

Question 122

explain the contests which took place at the Great Panathenaia

Answer 122

contests were held in honour of the goddess

musical and rhapsodic contests took place before the procession and sacrifices and may have lasted between 1 to 3 days - these only took place during the Great Panathenaia

the rhapsodic contest consisted of sung recitations of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey

the musical contests were divided between boys and men - and included a range of instruments - such as the lyre and the aulos

the prizes for the musical contests were very precious and valuable

on the following days athletic contests were held for boys and youths and then for men

these included events common at Panhellenic games such as running races, pentathlon - long jump, javelin, discus, stade race and wrestling - and pankration - a combat event which mixed boxing with wrestling

1st and 2nd prizes were presented and these were olive oil presented in a Panathenaic Amphora

an amphora is a jug or vessel for storing liquids

the Panathenaic Amphorae always had a black-figure image of a striding Athena on one side and an image of the event the competitor won on the other

the prizes varied between competitions

equestrian contests took place on the next days including the apobates race - which displayed the military skills of Athenian men

tribal contests were then held - the euandrion and the Pyrrhic Dance

the euandrion encouraged a sense of tribal spirit and comradery - as well as national pride and celebration

in ancient Greece men were valued for being beautiful and good - both attributes were credited to the gods

the Pyrrhic Dance was a military inspired event and involved groups of 24 men dancing naked with a shield on their left arm and wearing a light helmet

it was thought that Athena danced the Pyrrhic Dance after her victory over the Giants - again showing the religious element of the competition

the prize was an ox for sacrifice

the Torch Race was the final competition before the procession and sacrifices

Men ran from Piraeus - the main harbour of the city - up to the Acropolis carrying a burning torch - passing it on to other members in their team at specific distances

the team of the first man to successfully light the altar on the Acropolis won

this tribal event demonstrated teamwork and athleticism - all with a religious aim and purpose

it combines the athletic, democratic and religious nature of Athens

after the sacrifices a boat race took place in the bay of Piraeus - it only took place every 4 years

the event was in honour of both Athena and Poseidon - the god of the sea - who had rivalled Athena for patronage of the city

this was another tribal event that celebrated Athens’ naval power and skill and thanked the appropriate gods for their success and strength

the contests showcased the best of Athens by celebrating their musical and literary talents - their athletic strength and agility - their military and naval power and their democratic organisation

all these centred around the goddess Athena whom they credited with these talents and strengths and in whose honour they competed

the other Olympian gods were also honoured and worshipped but Athena was clearly the central focus

Question 123

what was apobates

Answer 123

Apobates

literally dismounting

an equestrian race unique to the Great Panathenaia - taking place along the Panathenaic Way in the centre of Athens

Question 124

what was euandrion

Answer 124

Euandrion

literally fine manliness

a contest judging the most beautiful male figure who would lead the procession the following day

Question 125

what was the Athenian Acropolis

Answer 125

Athenian Acropolis

date - rebuilt during the mid to late 5th century BC

Significance - key religious site in Attica and important for the whole of Greece

Festivals - Panathenaia - Plynteria

rebuilding commissioned by - Pericles after the sack of Athens by the Persians in 480 BC

Key buildings - Parthenon and Erechtheion

Question 126

what was the civic importance of the Athenian Acropolis to Athens

Answer 126

the Acropolis was the religious heart of Athens

the natural outcrop in the city made it the easiest place to defend - and it had been occupied since the late Bronze Age in the 16th to the 12th centuries BC

in the 6th century it was filled with votive offerings made by individuals - mainly to the patron goddess Athena

these offerings which marked either offerings of thanks or hope for protection and goodwill - show the religious nature of the space

the Acropolis also housed a temple

it was this pre-Parthenon which the Persians destroyed in 480 when they invaded Attica

following this destruction the Athenians swore the oath of Plataea - promising not to rebuild the Acropolis so that it acted as an eternal reminder of barbaric impiety

it was only under Pericles in the second half of the 5th century that building works began

The Parthenon and the Erechtheion dates to this period

they each served a primary religious purpose - integrating the Acropolis within the life of the city

Question 127

what was a pediment

Answer 127

pediment

the triangular space at the top of the eastern and western sides of the temple which could be sculpted

Question 128

what was Doric Frieze

Answer 128

Doric Frieze was identified by alternating triglyphs - which were 3 horizontal lines engraved in the marble - and metopes - a rectangular space that could be sculpted

Question 129

what was Ionic Frieze

Answer 129

Ionic frieze identified by a continuous area which could be sculpted

Question 130

describe the Parthenon

Answer 130

The Parthenon was entirely out of marble and housed an overwhelming number of sculptures

both pediments, all 4 sides of the Doric frieze (metopes) and an added Ionic Frieze was sculpted

inside the Parthenon housed Pheidias’ chryselephantine statue of Athena

the myths chosen to decorate the Parthenon relate to each other

the doric friezes are sculpted with 4 mythical battles

the statue of Athena Parthenos inside the Parthenon also depicted these myths

the outer side of her shield portrayed the Amazonomachy - the inside the Gigantomachy - and the Centauromachy was sculpted on her golden sandals

the east pediment showed the birth of Athena and the west pediment depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon for patronage of Athens

the Ionic frieze likely portrayed the Great Panathenaia - the Athenian festival in honour of Athena

the Parthenon did not have a purely religious purpose

large amounts of gold and silver objects were stored inside the Parthenon

it appears it functioned somewhat as a treasury as gold could be removed from the statue of Athena and melted down

Question 131

what were the 4 mythical battles depicted on the Parthenon’s Doric Frieze

Answer 131

Gigantomachy which was fought by the civilised gods against the barbaric Giants - Titans

Centauromachy which was fought by the civilised Lapiths against the barbaric centaurs

Amazonomachy which was fought by the civilised men against the barbaric Amazonian women

Trojan War which was fought by the civilised Greeks against the barbaric Trojans

Question 132

who was Pheidias

Answer 132

Pheidias

date c 480-430 BC

Sculptor

was famous for both the chryselephantine sculptures of Athena Parthenos on the Acropolis and of Olympian Zeus at Olympia

the statue of Olympian Zeus was regarded by later Greeks as 1 of the 7 wonders of the ancient world

neither have survived as over time the gold was removed and reused or sold

Question 133

explain the significance of the narrative depicted on the Ionic Frieze of the Parthenon

Answer 133

Ionic Frieze

this depiction of the Panathenaic procession shows mortals worshipping their goddess

all sections of society have gathered and are united to celebrate Athena

as they honour her they revel in their city’s democratic nature as well as its strength and piety

the attendance of the gods shows the reciprocal nature of Greek religion - the morals are worshipping the gods who in turn grant favour and protection to them

Question 134

explain the significance of the narrative depicted on the Doric Frieze of the Parthenon

Answer 134

Doric Frieze

this shows a series of mythical battles where order and civilisation has won against chaos and barbarity

in each case the gods and other heroic groups have fought and brought about the current state of the world

each battle represents a further reason why mortals should worship the gods as they ensured the end of these offences

Question 135

explain the significance of the narrative depicted on the pediments of the Parthenon

Answer 135

the pediments

these portray divine scenes related specifically to the patron goddess Athena

her birth - depicted on the East side - celebrates her origin and the contest - shown on the west side - explains why she is the patron goddess of Athens

both myths are crucial to her worship and authority in the city

Athena - who fought in the Gigantomachy and who helped Greek heroes such as Achilles at Troy - can therefore be directly thanked for the civilisation that the Doric Frieze celebrates

likewise she is the one being honoured in the Panathenaic procession

Question 136

what is a caryatid

Answer 136

Caryatid

a female figure used in place of a column to support an architectural structure

Question 137

describe the Erechtheion

Answer 137

The Erechtheion marked the most sacred spot on the Acropolis - it was here that Athena and Poseidon competed for patronage of the city - the scene depicted on the west pediment of the Parthenon

the building also housed the grave of King Kekrops - a mythical king of Athens who had the head of a man but body of a snake

it was dedicated to Erechtheus - the only semi-offspring of Athena and an Athenian hero who all Athenians claimed descent from

on the south porch facing the Parthenon stood six caryatids - statues of females that acted as columns

the Erechtheion was believed to be the home of a serpent - a representation of Kekrops himself

the temple was used for 2 ancient rites - the Plynteria - a cleansing festival - and for the annual Panathenaia

the Plynteria was an annual festival in honour of Athena and Aglauros - a heroine who also had a sanctuary on the foothills of the Acropolis

the festival lasted several days during which the temples were closed and business ceased

the temple of Athena was surrounded by rope and no one could enter so that the priestesses could clean her statue properly

since the goddess was hereby hidden from the city it was believed that she was absent during the days of this festival

during the Panathenaia the Erechtheion was the destination of the procession as the peplos was presented to the olive statue of Athena Polias

omens were also taken at the altar in the north porch

Question 138

what was a Pythia

Answer 138

Pythia

the priestess who spoke the oracle at Delphi - said to be apparently selected from the best and most valued families in Delphi and once chosen she had to lead a life of chastity and exercise

Question 139

explain Delphi and its relation to state and private consultation of the Delphic oracle

Answer 139

Apollo - the god of prophecy, the sun and music - was the predominant god worshipped at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delphi but not the only one

Dionysus was said to have occupied Delphi for three winter months when Apollo went to live with the Hyperboreans - a mythical people who lived at the very edges of the world

the sanctuary was renowned for its oracle - as well as for theatrical and athletic events and the Pythian games which took place here every 4 years

other than providing the personnel for the oracle - the Pythia and the priests - the local Delphians had limited control over the sanctuary and the oracle

the sanctuary was run by the Amphictyonic League - a local association of Greeks

as a Panhellenic sanctuary where Greeks from all over the Greek-speaking world had the right to gather and worship - and as a source of information and guidance for a variety of personal and political decisions - the oracle had to be as neutral as possible

there are a few cases where it had been accused of bribery

throughout Delphi’s long history it was only accused of bribery and political bias on a handful of occasions

without this reputation for neutrality and fairness Delphi would not have been so popular and trusted throughout its history

Question 140

what was a peribolos

Answer 140

Peribolos

the sanctuary itself - sacred land - distinguished from the profane by a wall or boundary stones

Question 141

describe the site of Delphi

Answer 141

the site of Delphi

date - earliest buildings are 6th century BC

Significance - Panhellenic sanctuary and site of the Pythian oracle of Apollo

festival - Pythian Games

key buildings - Temple of Apollo - the Theatre - the Sacred Way - the stadium

Question 142

describe the sanctuary at Delphi

Answer 142

the sanctuary at Delphi is separated into two sections by the modern road

each is marked off from the surrounding space by a peribolos wall

there was also a complex gymnasium

the upper sanctuary is THE FOCUS

the Sacred Way led worshippers from the entrance of the sanctuary up to the temple of Apollo

the theatre was located above this and at the top of the sanctuary was the stadium

there was a myth associated with the location of the sanctuary

according to the myth Zeus sent 2 eagles - one to the east and one to the west - and they met each other above Delphi

Delphi therefore contained an omphalos - the navel of the world - and was believed to be the centre of the world

Question 143

describe the Temple of Apollo at the Sanctuary at Delphi

Answer 143

the temple of Apollo is situated in the centre of the sanctuary

in front of it there is an enormous altar dedicated by the people of Chios to give them the privilege of consulting the oracle first

this would have been a highly prized honour since the oracle was only open a few days per year

the temple is entered via an enormous ramp on the east side

the temple was hexastyle with an elongated design to accommodate the adyton from where it is believed the Pythia would speak the oracle

within the naos stood a stone omphalos - a navel - and perhaps also a wooden and a golden statue of Apollo - and a laurel tree - the tree most commonly associated with Apollo whose leaves the Pythia was believed to have chewed on to reach her prophetic state

the temple was decorated with inscriptions and sculpture

the inscriptions were - know thyself - and - nothing in excess

the eastern pediment was decorated with marble sculpture showing the arrival of Apollo by chariot with gods beside him

in the corners lions are eating other animals - perhaps symbolising the hierarchy of the gods over other creatures

the west pediment likely showed the Gigantomachy with Zeus in the centre

Question 144

what was the adyton

Answer 144

Adyton

the forbidden room behind the naos - at the back of the temple

Question 145

what was the naos

Answer 145

Naos

the main room of the temple where the gods image was kept

Question 146

what was omphalos

Answer 146

Omphalos

belly button

Question 147

what was a treasury

Answer 147

Treasury

this building has the same appearance and architectural orders of temples and was set up by city-states to house religious dedications and acted as a religious offering in itself

Question 148

explain The Sacred Way of the Sanctuary at Delphi

Answer 148

The Sacred Way was constructed in the final phase of the sanctuary’s history

it unites a series of buildings - predominantly treasuries and stoas - and monuments that preceded the focal parts of the sanctuary

the walk up the Sacred Way was very steep

the whole sanctuary was built on the slopes of Mount Parnassus - and the arrangement of buildings and monuments had to work around this uneven ground

visitors could not have an oversight of the sanctuary from below - this meant the journey up to the Temple of Apollo and beyond was visually exciting

The Sacred Way was flanked by treasuries, stoas and monuments

these were set up by city-states from all over the Greek world - reflecting the Panhellenic nature of the site

they were also a way of showcasing and promoting their individual military victories - despite the Panhellenic status of the sanctuary

at the very start of the Sacred Way at the entrance to the sanctuary is a highly visible and frequented location - this is where Athens had setup a monument - may have commemorated their victory over the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490

towards the end of the 5th century when the Spartans defeated Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian Wars the Spartans set up a monument directly opposite the Athenian monument

This Spartan victory monument comprised of a group of 38 statues in 2 rows - 3 times the size of the Athenian dedication

Spartan supremacy was celebrated and credited to the god Apollo but also visually dominated the area and the Athenian monument opposite

there are other monuments that reflect unity and alliance

The Serpent column is set up beside the altar in front of the Temple of Apollo

during the 5th century when mainland Greece was invaded by Xerxes’ Persian army a number of Greek city-states joined forces to fight the Persians

after the final land battle - the Battle of Plataea in 479 - when the Greeks finally won the war - this alliance setup a Serpent Column at Delphi thanking Apollo for his guidance and for their success

the monument consisted of 3 bronze serpents coiled together into a column with a golden tripod on top

the serpents recall Pytho - who Apollo slew - and the tripod corresponds with the tripod the Pythia sat on

the names of the 31 Greek cities that were involved in the fight against Persia were inscribed on the monument - a real display of unity and common worship

however the monument also exposed and shamed the Greek poleis that had not joined in the resistance against the Persians

The Sacred Way was also surrounded by treasuries

the treasury of the Siphnians was located on the left side of the pathway as one walked up towards the temple

the treasury was made entirely of marble and was decorated with elaborate sculptures and caryatids on the façade

the impressive appearance and location of the treasury directly beside the Sacred Way was an excellent way to promote the Aegean island in this Panhellenic setting

the majority of these treasuries were erected by faraway poleis - who required greater efforts to show their inclusion in the Hellenic sphere

The Treasury of the Athenians was located at the sharp turning point of the Sacred Way where most worshippers were likely to pass or take a rest before the next ascent

its marble and heavily sculpted exterior would have stood out in the sanctuary

in front of it stood a stoa set up by the Athenians - which was on the plateau directly below the Temple of Apollo

this prime location meant that worshippers waiting to consult the oracle would have waited here for their turn

this practical building was another excellent way for Athenian self-promotion

The Sacred Way was therefore surrounded by buildings and monuments that celebrated both individual city-states and alliances

the distinction between politics and religion is impossible - victory monuments were just as much about self-promotion as they were about expressing gratitude to the gods

Question 149

what was a temenos

Answer 149

Temenos

a piece of land marked off for specific religious usage

Question 150

explain the Theatre at The Sanctuary at Delphi

Answer 150

the theatre north-west of the Temple of Apollo reflects the presence of Dionysus - the god of theatre - at Delphi

it is the only competition space within the temenos as the stadium is just outside of it

it originally had 35 rows of seats and catered to an audience of 5,000

the theatre was originally built in the 4th century - an earlier one could have been made of wood and replaced with stone later but there is no archaeological evidence to support this

originally there was a Pythian festival held every 8 years where a single contest was held - it was the singing of a hymn to Apollo accompanied by the kithara - a stringed musical instrument similar to the lyre

this festival was replaced by the Pythian Games - which are first recorded in 582

the musical contests - which would have taken place in the theatre once it was built - consisted in singing to the kithara, kithara-playing and flute-playing

Question 151

explain the Stadium at the Sanctuary at Delphi

Answer 151

The stadium is located north-west of the sanctuary of Apollo - just outside the temenos wall

the stadium was originally built in the 5th century but restored in the 2nd century AD

The track in its final phase had stone tiers of seating for 6,500 spectators on both sides of the track

we should not think that athletic contests were distinct from religious practice - one inscription forbids the removal of sacrificial wine out of the stadium

it was here that the majority of the athletic contests of the Pythian Games took place

these would have been the same events that also took place in the other Panhellenic sanctuaries - such as running races and field events such as javelin and discus

the equestrian competitions were held in the hippodrome which was below Delphi in the plain of Crisa - though it has not been excavated

combat events took place in the palaestra - an exercise ground in the lower sanctuary

Question 152

what was promanteia

Answer 152

Promanteia

the right to consult the oracle first

Question 153

explain public and private oracular consultation of the Pythia at Delphi

Answer 153

consultation of the Pythia only took place on the 7th day of the month for 9 months - as Apollo was absent for the remaining 3

considering that it was visited by people from all over the world - both by individuals and representative of city-states - 9 days per year was not very much

there was an alternative consultation - which took the form of a lot oracle performed at the Corycian Cave high above Delphi

here questions requiring a yes or no answer were posed and a black-and-white dice was cast to determine whether the answer was positive or negative

on the 1st day of every month the Pythia would purify herself and perform offerings to Apollo and priests would verify that divine consultation could proceed

Priests sprinkled water on the head of a goat and if it shuddered Apollo consented to the consultation

the goat was then sacrificed on the altar to Apollo outside the temple so that all knew that the oracle could be consulted

with only 9 days of the year open for consultation consultants would have to be arranged into an order

Delphians were always allowed to address the Pythia first - thereafter lots were drawn to arrange visitors

Promanteia was granted by the Amphictyony - the supreme council in charge of the sanctuary and oracle - based on the relationship a city or an individual may have had with Delphi

as we have seen the island of Chios dedicated an enormous altar to the sanctuary and was granted promanteia in response

while worshippers waited their turn they would have assembled in buildings such as the Stoa of the Athenians

this was the perfect opportunity for meeting new people from all over the world and discussing ideas and queries - it was this sharing of information that made Delphi such a special and unique place as intelligence could be gathered and debated in a politically neutral setting

before consulting the Pythia the worshippers had to make a payment

they bought a pelanos - a small sacrificial cake that was burned on the altar, from Delphians, which acted as payment for the consultation

the prices were different for state and individual consultations - as well as for which city the person was from - Athens paid more because it was wealthy

certain individuals were also given the honour of not having to pay at all

the consultant then entered the temple when it was his turn - only men could address the Pythia

they made a sacrifice and then went to where the Pythia was waiting

it is unclear exactly what happened at this stage - whether the consultant spoke directly to the Pythia and was in the same room as her, how the Pythia reached her state of ecstasy and to what extent her response was intelligible by non-priests

literary sources suggest that there was another room in the adyton where consultants stood while the Pythia made her prophecies - though this room has not been excavated

exactly how the Pythia transformed into becoming the mouthpiece of Apollo is hotly debated

some stated that she chewed on laurel leaves to reach a state of ecstasy

others insisted that she inhaled vapours that emanated from the ground

geologists have discovered that 2 major geological fault lines crossed directly beneath the temple and that small amounts of gas could have risen from the rocks underneath

in a constricted room - which the adyton likely was - these could have had significant effects on the Pythia

nevertheless sources differ about whether she raved incoherent noises and words that a priest then deciphered - or whether her responses were comprehensible

Plutarch - a 1st-century AD Greek Writer - records that people asked if they will be victorious, if they will marry, if it is profitable to sail, if to farm, if to travel - indicating a wide range of questions posed

the city-states used the oracle to consult about various decisions

this breadth of enquiry further illustrates how religion played a crucial role in every aspect of life

Question 154

explain the Attic kylix depicting a consultation of the Pythia PS Fig 1.39

Answer 154

Attic kylix depicting a consultation of the Pythia

date c 440-430 BC

Style - red-figure

artist - the Kodros Painter

centre - the Pythia sits on her tripod holding a laurel branch and a libation bowl

before her is a wreathed consultant

significance - shows how the oracle at Delphi was consulted

unfortunately the kylix does not clarify whether the male figure on the right is the consultant himself or an intermediary priest

this kylix - a drinking vessel - depicts the Pythia seated on the bronze tripod commonly associated with Apollo - holding laurel leaves and a libation bowl

her head and her entire body are covered to show her modesty and respectability

the column in the background suggests they are indoors - likely in the adyton of the temple - and the consultant stands before her

he too appears entirely draped and wearing a wreath of laurel leaves - a sign of honour to Apollo

Question 155

why did the ancient Greeks believe the Pythia at Delphi

Answer 155

why did the ancient Greeks - a people known for their logic and intelligence - believe the ravings of a priestess?

there are 3 main factors to consider

first the economic, physical and time cost for individuals and city-states to consult the oracle suggest that there must have been a genuine trust in and appreciation of the advice given by the oracle

Xenophon a 4th-century Greek historian’s attitude to divination would extend to an oracle - another form of messages of the gods

making difficult life decisions - individuals turn to the gods to ask for guidance

Secondly private consultants valued the journey to Delphi as much as the response by the Pythia

creating the time to think through one’s options and discussing them strangers - whom they would meet along the way and at Delphi itself - would certainly have helped them work through their dilemmas and come to certain conclusions

finally state queries would have benefitted from the gathering of people from around the world - sharing of information would have benefited statesmen who needed eyewitness accounts to report home and base their decisions

a combination of these factors explain why the oracle at Delphi was so popular and so well respected through the ancient world

there was a persistent belief in the relationship between madness and truth-telling - the Greeks did not usually interpret the mad as purely insane but rather having special insight and understanding

Question 156

what was the site of Olympia

Answer 156

The site of Olympia

date - earliest buildings are 6th century BC

Significance - Panhellenic sanctuary and site of the most important festival of games

festival - Olympic Games

Key buildings - Temple of Zeus including Pheidias’ statue of Zeus - the ash altar of Olympian Zeus - the treasuries - the Echo Stoa - the stadium

Question 157

describe Olympia and the Olympic Games

Answer 157

Olympia is situated in the central western part of the Peloponnese

its site and use are firmly linked with the mythology and cult of the predominant god worshipped at this site - Olympian Zeus

Olympia was not a city-state but was under the authority of a single city - Elis

The Eleans provided all the priests and officials and before the opening of the Olympic Games a large processions was held from Elis to Olympia - again marking their influence and presence over the sanctuary

the sanctuary was called the Altis and within it were the most sacred buildings and monuments - it was distinguished by a boundary wall

Question 158

describe the Temple of Zeus at Olympia

Answer 158

in the centre of the Altis and dominating the sanctuary space was the Temple of Zeus

the Early Classical temple - built before 456 - housed the chryselephantine statue of Zeus made by the sculptor Pheidias

the temple was by far the largest temple in the sanctuary and one of the largest in mainland Greece at the time

it was decorated with scenes relating closely to the mythology of Olympia and to Zeus

the east pediment depicted the chariot race between Pelops - Zeus’ grandson - and Oinomaos

Pelops - a Greek hero whose shrine is located within the Altis - hereafter founded the Olympic Games

in the centre stands Zeus presiding over the event and ensuring that the hero defeats the barbaric Oinomaos - who beheaded all previous opponents

this myth was therefore not only relevant to Zeus - as there was a familial connection between him and the main hero - but related to Olympia - as it was a founding myth to the games

on either side of the pediment were sculpted personifications of the 2 main rivers of Olympia - Kladeos and Alpheios - bringing the mythical scene even closer to the setting of the temple

the west pediment portrayed the Centauromachy - the mythical battle between the centaurs and the Lapiths - a people from Thessaly

it is thought to have symbolised the victory of civilisation over barbarity

in the centre Apollo dominates the scene as god of justice and order

the metopes of the temple portrayed the 12 labours of Heracles - aided by the goddess Athena

Heracles was lauded particularly by athletes - due to his strength and agility

a son of Zeus - he was also believed to be the founder of the Olympic Games

he therefore was also the recipient of worship at this Panhellenic sanctuary and a series of altars stood in his honour around the Altis

Question 159

describe Pheidias’ statue of Zeus at Olympia

Answer 159

inside the Temple of Zeus stood Pheidias’ statue of Zeus - which was later considered 1 of the 7 wonders of the ancient world

although the statue has not survived we know that the god was seated on a throne holding a sceptre with an eagle on top in his left hand and a statue of Nike, winged Victory in his right

everything about the statue affirms his supremacy, power and authority as father of gods and men

at the quadrennial Olympic Games athletes and spectators would have entered the temple to worship and admire this statue but it was likely closed for the rest of the time

Question 160

describe the ash altar of Zeus at Olympia

Answer 160

The ash altar of Zeus

north of the temple of Zeus stood an enormous altar of Zeus

it was apparently here that Zeus struck his lightning bolt from Mount Olympus in northern Greece

the altar had existed since the 10th century and was essentially a pile of ashes left from each sacrifice mixed with water from the local river - the Alpheios

by the 1st century AD it consisted of a stone base surmounted by a pile of ashes almost 7 metres high

this monumental altar - the site of the worship of the god - was the site of sacrifices made throughout the Games - both by athletes and by visitors

it reminds us that the Games - although athletic in nature - were dedicated to and in honour of Zeus - they were a religious affair

Question 161

describe the treasuries at Olympia

Answer 161

on the northern side of the Altis before entering the stadium are a series of 12 treasuries - votive offerings set up by city states to house dedications to the gods

they are located at the terrace below the hill of Mount Kronos - a hill named after the father of Zeus

these were set up by Greeks from all over the world

all but 2 are dedicated by city-states from outside the Greek mainland - many from cities from Southern Italy and Sicily - showing the Panhellenic appeal of this sanctuary

their prime location on the way to the stadium meant maximum visibility and self-promotion

in front of the treasuries stood a series of bronze statues of Zeus - known as the zanes

these depicted the god about to throw his thunderbolt

they were paid for with the fines imposed on athletes who cheated and their purpose was to warn future athletes against cheating

on the first day of the Games all athletes and judges had to swear an oath not to cheat and to judge fairly by Zeus Horkios - Zeus protector of oaths

these statues acted as visual reminders of these oaths as the athletes and judges approached the stadium and warned others that Zeus punishes those who defy him

Question 162

describe the Echo Stoa at Olympia

Answer 162

The Echo Stoa is located between the Temple of Zeus and the stadium - forming the eastern boundary of the Altis

it was called Echo as it was believed that a single word would echo 7 times within it

it was also called the Stoa Poikile - the Painted Stoa because of the paintings that once decorated the inside

The Stoa which is still visible today dates to the mid 4th century and was almost 100 metres long

it was here that the competition for trumpeters and heralds was held on the first day of the Olympic Games

the winners of these contests would be the official trumpeter and herald for the rest of the festival

Question 163

describe the Stadium at Olympia

Answer 163

the stadium is just outside the temenos boundary on the north-east side of the sanctuary

it was here that the running races, combat and field events took place during the Games

Athletes would emerge through a vaulted tunnel to reach the track

to reinforce the religious element of each of these events the running races always finished facing the Altis - showing the athletes’ dedication to Zeus

the stadium was 192 metres long - the length Heracles was believed to have run in a single breath

another myth was that it was 600 Olympic feet - measured by Heracles’ feet

the stadium was originally built in around 560 and was later refurbished in the mid 4th century

it could accommodate between 40,000 and 45,000 spectators who sat on the foothills of Mount Kronos - either side of the stadium

only judges and the priestess of Demeter Chamyne - the only woman allowed to view the contests - had a specially assigned seating area - a platform on the southern edge of the track

Question 164

describe the Olympic Games

Answer 164

The Olympic Games - held at Olympia every 4 years - were the most famous and prestigious of the 4 sets of Panhellenic games

the Games at Olympia are traditionally believed to have been founded in 776 - although worship of Zeus at Olympia can be traced archaeologically to much earlier

the athletic contests were only one of the ways Zeus was worshipped at this site

The Greeks believed that the festival’s origins lie in the two foundation myths featuring Zeus’ descendants - the heroes Heracles and Pelops

the Games were a 5 day event - preceded by a procession from Elis for athletes, judges and trainers where sacrifices were performed along the way

events included running and equestrian races as well as field and combat events that took place in the stadium and hippodrome

there were also competitions for heralds and trumpeters that took place in the Echo Stoa

The games were also an opportunity for visitors to explore the sanctuary and pay religious homage to the gods

besides the sacrifices that they could offer there was even an oracle of Zeus there

the games were also a way to assert one’s Greek identity - since only Greeks could compete in these games poleis from the fringes of the Greek world such as Sicily or Macedon competed here and broadcast their victories to show that they were considered Greek

Philip II of Macedon - the father of Alexander the Great - depicted his victory in the four-horse chariot race in 338 on his gold coinage

he did this to emphasise to the rest of the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese that he - and Macedon as a whole - was Greek - a fact that other Greek poleis disputed

The Games therefore served a variety of purposes - ranging from religious to civic, from athletic to political

Question 165

explain ideas about why rituals were performed

Answer 165

Greek religious rituals followed a very precise procedure

any deviance form the procedure could provoke the anger of the gods

because of this priests and priestesses had to be practised in their services

they fulfilled the important role of invoking the goodwill of the gods on behalf of the entire community

in theory anyone could become a priest or priestess in the Greek world

Priests/priestesses sometimes had to be seers, dream-interpreters, doctors, butchers, accountants and much more

it all depended on the deity in question and the local peculiarities of the deity’s cult in which they served

despite not receiving specific training Greek priests had to have many skills

they did not form an overall caste or association as in some other cultures

they kept their individuality and provided assistance as required at the sanctuaries to which they were appointed

Question 166

explain the role of priests and priestesses

Answer 166

the main task of priests and priestesses in ancient Greece was the performance of the ritual sacrifice and other religious services

a civic priest always stood under the responsibility of the local authorities

politicians did not need priests to perform religious activities but priests were often dependent on a civic representative to perform a public sacrifice

often priests were merely employed by the city performing rituals at specific civic occasions and assisting the magistrates

if they were special oracular priests they would be interpreting a deity’s oracles when the city sought a god’s advice - but did not have actual direct political significance

in Athens the archon basileus was in charge of all religious matters but individual priests and priestesses were employed for each deity

being a priest was not usually a way of life - it was often an unpaid post or only a part-time occupation - one could probably not feed a family from the salary

but priests had many privileges in ancient Greece similar to those of politicians - front row seats in the theatre of Dionysus at the slope of the Acropolis were reserved for particular priesthoods

the best cuts of the sacrificial meat were kept by the priests

priests were generally well regarded in society and becoming a priest was a goal to aspire to as it brought with it prestige

Question 167

what was a dadouchos

Answer 167

Dadouchos

torchbearer - second most important priest in the Eleusinian Mysteries - drawn from the family of the Kerykes

Question 168

who was the priestess of Athena Polias

Answer 168

priestess of Athena Polias

key participant in the Panathenaic procession - carrying the peplos of Athena

Question 169

explain the connection between aristocratic families and priestshoods

Answer 169

there were 3 basic ways to obtain priesthood which were the same for women as for men

through inheritance
by lot
through purchase

hereditary priesthoods were mostly lifelong and particularly prominent in important civic cults such as the cult of Athena Polias in Athens and the priests of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis

the most famous hereditary priesthoods in Greece were held by the 2 families which provided priests for the mysteries of Eleusis

at Eleusis the Eumolpidae provided the priests called hierophants for the mysteries

the Eumolpidae traced their family roots back to mythical times and the mythical king Eumolpos - who was introduced to the mysteries by the goddess herself

next to the Eumolpidae were the Kerykes who traced their family roots back to Keryx - the mythological first priest of Demeter at Eleusis

this family provided the second most important priests next to the hierophant - the dadouchos - torchbearer- as depicted on the Ninnion tablet

the dadouchos was distinguished by a particular headband with a myrtle wreath and a robe which was perhaps dyed purple

his main duty was to provide light which played an important part in the nocturnal part of the ceremony

becoming a dadouchos at the mysteries of Eleusis was a great honour for the chosen individual from the noble family

once could also become a priest by lot or election

priests were normally elected by lot or vote on an annual basis

lastly priesthoods could be obtained by purchase - both men and women could pay to be appointed as priests - whereas female priesthoods cost less than male priesthoods

Question 170

explain the role of women in religious rituals

Answer 170

The Priestess of Athena Polias - Athena of the city - was perhaps the most important female priesthood in ancient Greece

the priestesses were provided by the noble family of the Eteoboutadae who traced their roots back to the mythical age

the role of this priestess had enormous significance in the Athenian society and even if she was not directly involved in politics she appeared side by side with the most important political officials

for example we see the priestess of Athena Polias together with the archon basileus on the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon where he hands the peplos to Athena

this is very important as women were normally excluded from the male sphere of politics - public priesthoods therefore were an exception to this rule

religion was perhaps the only area in ancient Greek society where women were clearly visible and where they had actual influence in the society

as priests women were actually taking part in the administration of the sacred - they led processions that attracted people from all over the Greek world such as the Panathenaia - and organised and held their own festivals such as the Thesmophoria, a female citizen only festival in honour of Demeter

all such festivals were of great importance to the city, its well being and good fortune, religion and society

as a general rule Greek cities employed priestesses for female deities and priests for male ones

there were exceptions - men also served in the sanctuaries and festivals of female deities

women also served as consultants sometimes in very important positions such as the Pythia at the Delphic oracle

the situation overall in Greece differs quite significantly from Rome where women only rarely and exceptionally held priestly offices such as the Vestal Virgins

Question 171

explain the sacrifice and the role of the priest in conducting rituals

Answer 171

sacrifice could be performed by anyone who had the means and wish to do so

this meant that even housewives and slaves could perform sacrifices - particularly in smaller groups and within families

they could learn the process easily through imitation and involvement in rituals

also since becoming a priest was sometimes more or less unforeseeable - as when chosen by lot - or did not require any tradition in the circumstance of purchase of priesthood - it must have been possible for everyone to perform most rituals

for blood sacrifices however some skills in butchery needed to be acquired

this does not seem to have been a problem as in many cases the actual butchering was done by a professional assistant rather than the priest

yet the role of the priests was a special one - they were mediators between humans and the divine and they were necessary for the performance of larger rituals

Question 172

explain the role of other priestly tasks such as building works and finances

Answer 172

priests and priestesses were not only responsible for rituals celebrated in the sanctuary - they were appointed at but equally for the physical care of the sanctuary

this included its buildings, votive-gifts and finances - most sanctuaries served as banks primarily for the state in times of crisis but also for individuals taking out loans for private matters

priests were also supposed to collect funding for religious activities and prepare the sacrificial animals that worshippers had brought to the shrine

Question 173

explain the purpose process and significance of blood sacrifice

Answer 173

the blood sacrifice was the standard type of ancient Greek sacrifice

this ritual slaughtering stood at the centre of the community or group and served many purposes - one of which was the supply of meat

the main species slaughtered for sacrifice were sheep, goats, pig and cattle, rarely fish, wild animals, dogs, horses or fowl

the choice of animal depended on the type of festival, its scale and budget available

for the Thesmophoria and Eleusinian Mysteries the participants brought piglets to be sacrificed

the hecatomb - the most famous of all blood sacrifices which included the slaughtering and consumption of originally one hundred oxen - was a rare occasion in the ancient Greek city

its scale however diminished over time and a hecatomb could be held with a dozen oxen instead of one hundred

a famous hecatomb of ancient Greece was the hecatomb at Olympia at the end of the Olympic Games on the great altar of Zeus

individual worshippers will have tended to bring smaller and hence cheaper animals and leave the cattle for civic festivals

we know very little about the act of sacrifice even though it was so central to Greek religion

depictions on reliefs and vases show the leading of the animal to the altar but hardly ever the actual killing or the allocation of the sacrificial meat thereafter

we know that it was held on an altar - outside of a temple or shrine - and people gathered to watch the procedure

the most important information about the actual procedure of sacrifice is taken from Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and from Euripides and Aristophanes

all these accounts point to 3 stages of the sacrificial procedure

Question 174

explain the sacrificial procedure

Answer 174

1 The Preparation

the animal was led to the altar - usually in a procession such as the Panathenaic procession

each participant cleansed their hands and took a handful or barley grain from a basket

next the sacrificial victim’s head was sprinkled with water to force a nod of agreement form the animal - followed by the cut of a strand of hair of the victim by the main sacrificer - who could also be a butcher and not necessarily the priest

the hair was put on the altar, the fire was lit, a prayer was said in which the desired outcome of the sacrifice was formulated such as health or victory

now the other participants threw their handfuls of barley forward

2 the act of killing

in this step the main sacrificer cut the animal’s throat with a knife and larger victims were stunned by a blow with an axe beforehand

women now chanted the ritual cry called ololyge and the altar was bloodied by either holding the animal directly over the altar or catching a larger animal’s blood in a bowl and then pouring it over the altar

3 Handling of the meat.

the deity’s portions were taken away - typically the thigh bones and small portions of meat form all the limbs were burned on the altar and while burning wine was poured over it

next the entrails were taken out and roasted on spits over the fire and shared among the worshippers

lastly the remaining meat was cooked and distributed among the participants

occasionally some portions were taken home but a communal meal on the spot was the norm - for which many sanctuaries offered dining rooms

during the sacrifice the omens were often taken both from the burning of the god’s portion and from the condition of the entrails, which were read according to a manual

Question 175

explain the depiction of the preparation of bulls for a sacrifice by the Nausicaa painter PS fig 1.49

Answer 175

Depiction of the preparation of bulls for a sacrifice by the Nausicaa Painter

Date c 450 BC

Significance - the vase shows the adornment of the sacrificial animals - a crucial part during the preparatory stage of a sacrifice

texts as early as Homer mentions the adornment of sacrificial victims before the slaughter

unlike in Homer where Nestor has a bull’s horns adorned with gold foil, adornments usually consisted of garlands, woollen fillets and ribbons around the head and belly

the vase shows two women standing back to back concentrating on preparing two bulls for a sacrifice

both women are wearing a peplos and are adorning the bulls’ heads with sacrificial woollen fillets

behind each bull we can see a tripod - typical prizes for winners of theatrical or musical competitions in honour of Dionysus

we can assume that the sacrifice that is about to happen was in honour of Dionysus in Athens and to celebrate a double-victory (hence the 2 tripods) at a choregic festival held in honour of the god

the 2 women due to their mature appearance are likely personifications of the victorious tribe (phyle) - or the victory goddess Nike herself (although unwinged in this depiction) - rather than of the maidens that would usually prepare the bulls

Question 176

explain the purpose and function of the blood sacrifice

Answer 176

scholars are still debating about the origin and the purposes of the blood sacrifice

some have suggested that the sacrifice was nothing but ritual slaughter

when thinking about the purposes behind blood sacrifice none of these approaches alone is sufficient to explain it - all of them bear some truth

blood sacrifice served to unite a community - fed people - displayed strength and the relationship between animals and humans and within the community - because hierarchy played an important role

most importantly the religious dimension of the sacrifice must have been at its heart

first and foremost was the need to appease the gods and request their goodwill

next was the celebration of the gods but equally the humans and their achievements

celebrating a victory or the end of a religious festival such as the Olympic Games equally honoured the gods as it did the victors and hosts

The Athenians equally celebrated Athena as they did themselves at the Great Panathenaia during which large blood sacrifices fed the crowd

Question 177

what are chthonic deities

Answer 177

chthonic deities

deities of the Underworld

Question 178

explain the role of libations in both state and private contexts

Answer 178

the most common form of sacrificial ritual after the blood sacrifice was the libation of liquids

in a ritual context the ancient Greeks poured water, wine, milk or honey honouring the gods, heroes or the dead and asking their favour in return

libations were poured in public and private contexts - often to mark the beginnings and endings of a day, banquet or the sacrifice itself

Dionysus himself is understood to be poured in the form of wine to gain divine favour - Euripides Bacchae

during travels libations were poured on the occasion of safe arrivals on land

in most cases libations were poured out of a wine-jug into a libation bowl and from there onto the altar or the ground

special libations of larger scale were poured for the dead and chthonic or nature deities (nymphs, muses) often directly into grave vessels or the earth

Question 179

what is a megaron

Answer 179

Megaron

underground chamber for ritual offerings

Question 180

explain ritual burial

Answer 180

another form of sacrifice was the burying of the sacrificial victims or objects

at the Thesmophoria the women ritually buried the sacrificial piglets in order to excavate the remains in the following year to be used as a fertilising agent on the Athenian fields

ritual burials of sacrificial meat or objects was a well-known practice throughout Greece in both private and public contexts

greek sanctuaries were crowded with everything a worshipper could possibly dedicate to a deity - ranging from parasols to jewellery, statues, inscriptions - any object dear to the worshipper

this lead to the annual or biannual clearance of sanctuaries where the objects were either stored in separate treasuries or buried ritually - depending on their value and size

Question 181

explain the role of votive offerings in both state and private contexts

Answer 181

a votive offering results from a vow by an individual or a community to one or more gods and was not prescribed by ritual

votive offerings record the reciprocal relationship the ancient Greeks had with their gods

the offerings were made either as thanks - after a deity showed goodwill or helpful intervention - or simply as a guarantee for future goodwill of the gods, sometimes with special instructions

votive offerings were also used to punctuate a person’s life stages and thus give us clues about an individual’s life

on becoming adolescents children offered toys or locks from the first haircut, craftsmen offered their tools at retirement and prize winners or successful warriors offered their prizes or the weapons that helped achieve their victory

in doing so they marked a specific event or a unique moment in their lives

unlike sacrifices, votive offerings were kept in the sanctuary

the more expensive offerings were often recorded in inventory lists - some of which have survived

on a larger scale individuals offered temples as votive offerings - most famously Themistocles after his victory over the Persians

many of them bore an inscription with the dedicator’s name in it

this was only possible for the wealthier people who could afford them

a large votive offering could also serve as a means to display one’s position and wealth in a city

despite the fact that we can assume that people set them up for superficial reasons such as to promote themselves - overall votive offerings can give us important insights into the lives, fates and habits of individuals that we would otherwise know nothing about - as we have seen in the case of the votive inscription to Asclepius

Question 182

explain the rise in Philosophical thinking

Answer 182

religion was part of every aspect of life and culture in ancient Greece

religion and philosophy were closely linked and should be viewed as such - philosophical theology and more generally thinking about the gods becomes evident not only in philosophical treatises but equally in historical texts such as Herodotus and Thucydides - which formulate their own thoughts on religion, the gods and their worship - albeit embedded in their historical writings in the 5th century BC

at the same time the Presocratic philosophers developed theologies in their studies that sometimes deviated from polytheism

the traditional Greek gods were discussed and sometimes it seems even criticised and ridiculed

whether this was actually the case or whether one should see this as a positive engagement in theology - whereby the criticism was in fact directed at the worshippers and popular beliefs - is still debated in modern scholarship

it was not the gods themselves that were ridiculed but traditional conceptions of the gods

Xenophanes was a Presocratic philosopher and the first to suggest one “cosmic” god

at the same time other interpretations of the divine were put forward - expanding on the polytheistic system that the Greek cities supported - such as Socrates who can be described as not actually monotheistic in an exclusive sense but in his polytheistic environment

theological texts of Greek philosophers before Plato have only come down to us in fragments

this is partly explained by the importance of Plato’s writings held for all philosophers after him - in particular Aristotle

Aristotle had enormous influence on our Western thinking and the Christian church in the West

Plato’s genius and influence may have made the Presocratic philosophers appear less important than they perhaps were - which is probably also due to the fact that they were usually quoted in hostile contexts by early Christian writers

from the fragments we have the Presocratic philosophers were discussing the Olympian gods and the rituals their worship entailed

at this stage in the 6th and 5th century BC - there was no clear division between science and philosophy - empirical and theoretical enquiry

Aristotle names Thales of Miletus - the famous engineer, geometer and astronomer who lived at the beginning of the 6th century - as the first presocratic natural philosopher

by enquiring about the world from a scientific point of view - including astronomical and cosmological studies - scholars such as Thales automatically came to question the traditional ideas of the gods as presented in Homer and Hesiod

other suggestions to explain the universe and the world more generally were put forward much in accordance with the current system - in a polytheistic world this did not have to be at odds with the acceptance of or belief in the other gods - rather this must be seen as an intellectual engagement of which religion was one part

Xenophanes formulated the most outspoken criticism of the traditional idea of the gods

he was an Ionian scholar who lived in the 6th century - and as a wandering intellectual and poet brought Ionian intellectualism to Magna Graecia - the Greek colonies in southern Italy including Sicily

Question 183

Who were Presocratic Philosophers

Answer 183

Presocratic Philosophers - philosophers living before Socrates who was born in 469 BC

Question 184

What was monotheism

Answer 184

Monotheism

denial of the existence of all gods but one - as for in Judeo-Christian culture

Question 185

who was Xenophanes of Colophon

Answer 185

Xenophanes of Colophon

6th century BC Presocratic philosopher from Asia Minor

Question 186

who was Plato

Answer 186

Plato

date c 429-347 BC

Athenian philosopher and follower of Socrates

Question 187

who was Aristotle

Answer 187

Aristotle

date 384-322 BC

Greek philosopher from northern Greece and student at Plato’s Academy

Question 188

explain the critique of the Gods of Homer and their Anthropomorphism - including that voiced by Xenophanes

Answer 188

Xenophanes work has come down to us only in fragmented form

Xenophanes natural philosophy and view of the world can perhaps be seen as a simplified form of the Milesian school’s cosmology that Thales of Miletus had initiated

Xenophanes cosmology suggests that the origin of everything is to be found in water and earth alone - We all came from earth and water

heavenly phenomena such as the stars were to be explained by clouds originating in the sea - according to Xenophanes

furthermore he undermined supernatural interpretations of natural phenomena

he said rainbows were not Iris - the messenger goddess of the Olympians - but a cloud of purple red and yellow

other fragments show that ancient scholars thought of Xenophanes as having criticised Homer and Hesiod for portraying the gods as behaving in ways that mortals would be blamed for

we always have to keep in mind that these sources may not accurately describe what Xenophanes wished to express as the evidence is only fragmentary and the sources are much later than Xenophanes’ own lifetime

it is possible that he modernised the Archaic theologies and divine concepts of Homer and Hesiod rather than actually criticising Greek religion, the gods and polytheism

in another quote of Xenophanes he seems to be ridiculing the anthropomorphic conceptions of the Greek deities

Xenophanes then suggest one god who is greatest among gods and men and not like mortals in either body or mind

his one greatest god is single and eternal and is not in any way resembling humans and is able to effect anything by mind alone

this idea of one god is new to Greek thought

whether or not Xenophanes can be seen as a monotheist is debatable

some scholars have called his world view henotheistic - which describes a religious system in which there exists one almighty god but the existence of other divine beings is acknowledged

we can credit Xenophanes for his systematic articulation of the concept of the one cosmic god - a phenomenon that became a tradition and was followed later by the Stoics from the late 4th century onwards

we do not have much evidence for Xenophanes’ contemporaries’ reactions to his radical views - but Herodotus it seems was influenced by Xenophanes’ conception to describe the Persian religion

Question 189

who were the Stoics

Answer 189

Stoics

followers of a philosophical school founded in the late 4th century which advocated belief in one cosmic god

Question 190

who was Socrates

Answer 190

Socrates

date 469-399 BC

Athenian philosopher

Question 191

who were the Sophists

Answer 191

Sophists

teachers and philosophers who charged for their services - and many of whom specialised in rhetorical argument

Question 192

what was the Socratic method

Answer 192

Socratic Method

the method of question-and-answer cross-examination as practised by Socrates in public and at private symposia

Question 193

what was daimonion

Answer 193

Daimonion

a divine sign that prevents Socrates from doing certain things

Question 194

explain Socrates and the accusations of impiety

Answer 194

Socrates was charged and tried by the Athenian state for impiety - irreverence toward the gods of the polis

active participation in Athens’ extensive religious life including all its festivals and ceremonies was a civic obligation

as a consequence to prosecute impiety was to act in the public interest of Athens as Athenian law forbade impiety

this charge against Socrates was then further specified and it was argued that first of all he did not believe in the right deities - the civic deities of Athens - and secondly that he introduced new deities

this then led to the corruption of the young which he had infected (socracised) with these thoughts

in his defence of Socrates (Apology) - Plato makes it very clear that he was not an atheist at all but that he was rather engaged in theological thinking

from the point of view of the Athenian state however Socrates had been guilty of the charges of impiety and was therefore justly executed

Unlike Xenophanes who wandered around the Greek world spreading his wisdom - Socrates was a local man who was born in Athens and lived there most of his life

Socrates did not leave any written work himself but we can reconstruct his philosophy from various sources - above all Plato and Xenophon - both pupils of Socrates and Aristophanes the comedian

all 3 knew Socrates in person and all 3 wrote utterly different things about the philosopher

in his clouds Aristophanes likened him to the sophists - teachers and philosophers who charged for their services

Xenophon and Plato on the other hand did everything to distinguish Socrates from this group - while Socrates is much engaged in dialectical argument using the Socratic method just like the sophists, Socrates refuses to receive money for his teaching

moreover Plato’s Socrates seems to be ambivalent about his own views - unlike the sophists who propagated clear distinctions - and he never sees himself as a teacher of anything

and while both Xenophon and Plato’s Socrates share the same goal in refuting the formal charges under which Socrates was tried, their portraits of the man himself differ significantly

which of the 2 drew the more accurate image of the historical Socrates is still debated but scholars tend to turn to Plato for information about both his character and thought

Question 195

explain Socrates’ ideas on the divine, justice and why he may have disagreed with the Homeric/Hesiodic idea of the gods

Answer 195

Socrates respected the gods and he believed in their existence

he is aware of the fact that they were by far superior to humans both in their wisdom and power

To Socrates the gods help those who are virtuous which is in line with his philosophical thinking

a most pious act is rational self-examination leading to the acknowledgment of the power and wisdom of the divine

for all we know through Plato Socrates was simply assuming the existence of the gods but he never felt the need to prove their existence and never needed to specify his ideas of the divine as it seems to have been a given

we don’t know if Socrates disagreed with the Homeric/Hesiodic idea of the Olympian gods as he never fully acknowledges or denies their existence

the Socrates we know through Plato is religiously pious

he obeys the god (Apollo) at the oracle at Delphi who said about Socrates that the fact that he acknowledged that he knew nothing made him wisest among men and ordered him to practise philosophy

what is more Socrates’ decisions and actions are influenced by divine intervention - he refers to a daimonion - a divine sign that prevents him from doing certain things

instead of following reason, Socrates follows his daimonion

also despite being charged with impiety he refers to the gods of whom we have been speaking - meaning the Athenian civic deities such as Zeus and Athena - and swears oaths by these gods

and yet his views of these gods must have been quite new - in fact Socrates gave the gods much more moral high ground than Hesiod or Homer

Socrates assumes that justice is a virtue, a good-making feature, and he tries to show that acting in accordance with justice is always intrinsically better than acting contrary to justice

Justice is represented by the laws of a city - which in Socrates case were the Athenian laws

in Socrates’ understanding of justice it is always better to obey these rules than not

this becomes clear when looking at his behaviour at the trial

despite the fact that the charges pressed against him may have been unjust as Plato and Xenophon’s apologies imply - he never left Athens or tried to escape his fate

rather he willingly accepted his execution as he preferred death from abstinence of philosophy - which would have been the alternative and therefore obeying the laws

Question 196

explain the extent to which Socrates’ ideas were radical or controversial

Answer 196

according to Socrates from perfectly good gods we have nothing to fear - on the contrary they may reward and aid us in response to our development of justice in our souls since they are perfectly knowledgeable

Socrates never explicitly criticises the civic deities or appears to be impious - let alone denies their existence

but he discusses and questions the gods in a way according to his moral philosophy and principles

some believe the threat to the Athenian authorities was the possibility of a spread of this questioning of the traditional attitude towards the gods

this trend seems to have been a red flag for the Athenian authorities and it may have triggered the civic authorities to charge Socrates with impiety

others argue that all he did was not to believe in the correct gods - namely those gods prescribed by the city - although Plato never really offers concrete alternatives

other reasons such as the political circle he moved in may have been equally important in his trial

Socrates surrounded himself with individuals who turned against democracy in Athens such as Alcibiades

Alcibiades was due to be tried for religious charges in 414 that were interpreted equally as anti-democratic sentiments - not unlike Socrates - but he managed to flee before he had to stand trial

Socrates’ charges included impiety and here specifically the introduction of new gods - as well as the corruption of young men

the last charge may be explained by the popular image of Socrates that was drawn by Aristophanes