ERQ Sociocultural COPY

Question 1

Cultural dimension definition + explanation

Answer 1

A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism. Hofstede’s classic research involved asking employees of the multinational company IBM to fill in surveys about morale in the workplace. He then carried out a factor analysis on the questionnaires, focusing on the key differences submitted by employees in different countries. His research is an example of an etic approach and it looked at the 40 most represented countries in the surveys.

Question 2

Berry aim

Answer 2

Berry (1967) studied the role of the individualism-collectivism dimension on one’s likelihood to conform.

Question 3

Berry procedure

Answer 3

The sample was made up of three different cultures.
Temne from Sierra Leone, a society that is based on rice farming.
Inuit people from Baffin Island in Canada, which survive by hunting and fishing.
Scots - a group that scores as “undefined” on the I-C scale.
Each group was made up of people who had never had a Western education and maintained the traditional way of life - and people who were “in transition” - either having a Western education or Western employment. Each individual was brought into a room by him or herself. For the test, they were given a set of nine lines and they were asked to match the line below that most closely matched the line on the top. These were the two practice tests to make sure that the directions were understood. The directions were given in their own language by a native interpreter using a pre-translated set of instructions and questions. On the third trial, the researcher pointed to an incorrect line and told the participant that this is what most people from their culture chose on this trial.

Question 4

Berry findings

Answer 4

The Temne, which is a collectivistic culture, had a much higher rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect. The Inuits, on the other hand, had an even lower rate of conformity than the Scots. There was no significant difference within groups - that means, it made no difference whether the participants were living the traditional life or were highly exposed to Western culture.

Question 5

Enculturation definition + explanation

Answer 5

Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of ones culture - a process also known as socialization.
Results in the development of cultural schema
enculturation is universal, but how it comes about isn’t
There are many ways in which people can become enculturated, including through education, parents, peers and media. If a culture values certain characteristic of obedience and compliance, they are more likely to have higher rates of conformity when compared to those that value independence. Therefore, enculturation may affect behavior of conformity.

Question 6

acculturation definition + explanation

Answer 6

the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent. Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health.

Question 7

Lueck and Wilson aim

Answer 7

investigated the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a sample of Asian Americans

Question 8

Lueck and Wilson procedure

Answer 8

about 2000 Asian Americans. about half of the participants were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese.

The researchers carried out semi-structured interviews. The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.The interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet or face-to-face.

Question 9

Lueck and Wilson results

Answer 9

70% of the sample were found to have acculturative stress.

higher stress:
- preference for speaking English
- Negative treatment by the dominant culture

lower stress:
- bilingual language preference
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family
- satisfied with their economic opportunities

Question 10

Miranda + Methany aim

Answer 10

to see which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress

Question 11

Miranda + Methany procedure

Answer 11

A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire as well as standardized tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress.

Question 12

Miranda + Methany findings

Answer 12

The findings suggested that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less like to demonstrate acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation.

Question 13

acculturation with regard to one behaviour/cognition definition+explanation

Answer 13

Acculturation is the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent. Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health.
Acculturative Stress refers to the anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.

Question 14

social cognitive theory definition/explanation

Answer 14

Developed by Albert Bandura, explains how humans learn behavior by observation and being reinforced by society. Assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior. We do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behavior. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behavior, is enough for us. Social cognitive learning theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy.
Self–efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behavior of the model. Social cognitive learning theory helps explain why behaviors may be passed down in a family or within a culture.
Humans learn by observation and imitation R.A.M.P
Retention
Attention
Motivation
Potential

Question 15

bandura aim

Answer 15

to see if children were more imitate aggression modelled by an adult and whether they were more likely to imitate same sex models

Question 16

bandura procedure

Answer 16

children aged 3-6 were placed in groups matched in regards to levels of aggression. one group was exposed to physical or verbal aggression against a doll, the second group observed a non aggressive adult, and as a control the third group did not see a model.
after watching the models the children were placed in a room with toys that they were told were not for them to promote aggression. after that they were taken out and placed in a room with the doll and their behaviour was secretly observed by scientists.

Question 17

bandura findings

Answer 17

children who observed the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive both physically and verbally and showed clear signs of observational learning
bandura also observed that girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression
when boys observed women physically abusing the doll, they were less likely to imitate the behaviour, showing that children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult

Question 18

social identity theory definition/explanation

Answer 18

Psychologists argue that we all have several social selfs or identities which correspond to different groups. According to the theory we need to know who we are and what our values are in social contexts. Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization: the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics. This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them).

Question 19

zimbardo aim

Answer 19

to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior

Question 20

zimbardo procedure

Answer 20

Stanford basement was converted to a mock prison. Prisoners were treated like every other criminal. Guards wore special sunglasses, to make eye contact with prisoners impossible. Prisoners were issued numbers, which they were addressed by instead of names. Guards were instructed to do whatever they thought was necessary to maintain law and order in the prison and to command the respect of the prisoners. Experiment lasted six days.

Question 21

zimbardo findings

Answer 21

Within hours of beginning the experiment some guards began to harass prisoners. The prisoners adopted prisoner-like behavior too. They talked about prison issues a great deal of the time. They started taking the prison rules very seriously. There was also a loss of self identity among the prisoners which showed when they signed off their letters to home with their number instead of their real names.

Question 22

tajfel aim

Answer 22

to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior

Question 23

tajfel procedure

Answer 23

A sample of 48 boys, ages 14 - 15 years old
asked to rate 12 paintings by abstract expressionist painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which artist had painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly allocated to one of two groups and told that they preferred either Klee or Kandinsky.

Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group. The only information that each boy was given was the code numbers and the name of the group of the two boys they were supposed to award. There were two systems of awarding points that were employed by the researchers.
Point allocation system 1: The point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the two scores was 15. If a participant chose 8, the other boy automatically got a score of 7 (15 - 8). This means that as the score for the participant increases, the score of the other boy decreases.
Point allocation system 2: In the second method of allocating points, Tajfel manipulated the system.
-> If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give a higher profit to the out-group.
-> If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points to the other group.
-> If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would award only 1 point to the other team.

Question 24

tajfel findings

Answer 24

In the first system of point allocation, the boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing in-group favoritism
In the second system of point awarding, the boys were willing to give their own team fewer points to maximize the difference between their in-group and the out-group. This was a bit surprising since it meant that the boys left the study with fewer points than if they had all given each other the largest number of points possible.

One of the most obvious conclusions that we can draw from this experiment is the natural tendency of members of a group to favor their in-group. Despite the seemingly meaningless groupings created by the experimenters, the participants were able to identify with their respective groups and create a positive social identity by giving their in-group more points. Tajfel demonstrated that a “minimal group” is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination against an out-group. This experiment is considered a classic in psychology because it demonstrates that intergroup conflict is not required for discrimination to occur. The study thus challenged previous beliefs that competition was necessary and sufficient to produce prejudice.

Question 25

Discuss (or Evaluate) one or more effects of stereotyping on behavior.

Answer 25

Our social world is very complex and thus presents us with too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited, our social world needs to be simplified. One way to avoid this information overload is through social categorisation. The information is used in social categorisation is stereotypes. A “stereotype” is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the stereotypes we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most stereotypes of today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm a stereotype. Stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance and cause reduced effort. This “self-handicapping” can offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure even while undermining performance.

Question 26

stone aim

Answer 26

the study was carried out to find out if the way a sport is framed would impede the performance of members of different racial groups

Question 27

stone procedure

Answer 27

Participants were told that they were going to be tested on a golf-related task. The task was either described as reflecting “factors correlated with natural athletic ability” (high stereotype threat) or “factors correlated with general sports performance” (low stereotype threat).

Question 28

stone findings

Answer 28

Stone found that white athletes practiced significantly less in the high threat compared with the low threat condition. The control group, made up of African Americans, did not show any difference in the two conditions.

Question 29

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group.

Answer 29

zimbardo and asch

There are several ethical considerations that researchers must address when carrying out research. In the Sociocultural approach psychologists study groups of people. This leads to specific problems. Two ethical considerations are undue stress or harm and deception.
Protection from undue stress or harm is the most important of all ethical considerations. “Undue stress” refers to any stress that would be more than a participant would encounter in everyday life. Simple discomfort or embarrassment is not “undue stress or harm.” But several of the early studies in social psychology did cause great stress for the individual. In addition, the person must be able to leave the experiment in the same condition in which s/he arrived. In order to avoid this, psychologists must submit their research proposals to an ethics committee for approval. Even with this step, sometimes the study may result in unexpected levels of stress.

Question 30

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Answer 30

Quasi experiment BERRY
A quasi-experiment does not have a random allocation of participants, so participant variability may play a role in the findings
quasi-experiments do not establish a cause-and-effect relationship because an IV is not manipulated.
real-life applicability
Ethical
less control

Question 31

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group. zimbardo

Answer 31

The prisoners demonstrated high levels of stress, even breaking down emotionally. This is a clear example of undue stress – that is, the level of stress is higher than they would experience on a day-to-day basis. In addition, the prisoners felt that they could not leave the experiment, which also would lead to higher levels of stress. Although the participants were debriefed and Zimbardo followed up with the participants with regard to their health after the study, there are still concerns about the long-term effects of the experience on the participants.
Deception means that the researcher either does not reveal the true aim of the study to the participants, or the participant is intentionally misinformed about the experiment. Deception is often used in psychology as a way to avoid demand characteristics by making sure that the participants do not know the goal of the study. In addition, the use of deception is sometimes necessary to study something that could not be studied otherwise – for example, if participants knew that a situation is staged or that confederates are not telling the truth, then the experiment would not make any sense. It would not test what it wanted to test and therefore lack validity.

Question 32

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group. asch

Answer 32

Ethics are not always black and white. In Zimbardo’s study, an ethics board approved the experiment. It is not always possible to predict what will happen in an experiment. In Asch’s study, there may have been some feelings of embarrassment, but there was no serious stress or harm caused to the participants. Another issue is whether there was an alternative way for Zimbardo or Asch to conduct their research that would have been more ethical. It is important for researchers to consider alternatives. Even though Zimbardo’s and Asch’s studies are not naturalistic, they are realistic and thus have ecological validity. Even though lines may not be important to people, being correct in a psychological study is. By creating experiments that are not realistic, there is the problem that we might not get valid results. This is why a cost-benefit analysis is important when considering ethics.

Question 33

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. berry

Answer 33

the study was mostly ethical as there was informed consent, they were partially deceived, their identities remained confidential, they were debriefed, they could withdraw, and they were protected from harm

Question 34

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. kulofsky

Answer 34

the study was ethical because there was informed consent, the participants were not deceived, they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they could withdraw, and they were protected from mental and physical harm

Question 35

Kulkoffsky et al. findings

Answer 35

The results showed that Chinese participants (collectivistic) had fewer flashbulb memories than Americans (individualistic). In collectivistic cultures, it is not culturally appropriate to focus on the individual’s own experiences and emotions. This may mean that there would be less rehearsal of the memory of the event compared with participants from other cultures - and so fewer FBMs. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, there was no significant difference in the level of FBMs

Question 36

Kulkoffsky et al. procedure

Answer 36

The sample was made up of about 250 participants from five different cultures. First, the participants were asked to recall memories of big news events in their lifetime. They were then given a questionnaire that asked them questions about what they were doing on the day of that event. They were also asked how important the event was to them personally and how important it was to their country. The survey was conducted in their native languages.

Question 37

cultural dimension, Individualism v Collectivism definition explination

Answer 37

A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.

Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships. There are several studies that look at how cultural dimensions may affect the behavior of members of that culture, but there are questions about the validity of the research.

In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Question 38

Kulkoffsky et al. aim

Answer 38

I-C can also influence cognition, such as memory. Kulkoffsky carried out a study to see if there were differences in the level of flashbulb memories in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.