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AP Psychology > Cognition > Flashcards

Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognition

A

the process of thinking in all its forms; including memory, intelligence, creative thinking and problem solving, and language

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2
Q

Memory

A
  • information processing
  • memory systems
  • retrieval
  • retrieval failure
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3
Q

Information processing

A

involves:

  • encoding
  • storage
  • retrieval
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4
Q

Encoding

A
  • transforming sensory input from short-term to long-term memory
  • requires focused attention and rehearsal
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5
Q

Storage

A

-retention of encoded info over time

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6
Q

Retrieval

A

-process of getting info out of storage

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7
Q

Memory systems

A

Involves:

  • sensory memory
  • short-term memory
  • long-term memory
  • biology of memory
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8
Q

Sensory memory

A
  • registers info from senses
  • holds info from the senses for a max of a few seconds
  • involves: iconic memory, echoic memory, selective attention, automatic processing, parallel processing, & effortful processing
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9
Q

Iconic (visual) memory

A

-momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

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10
Q

Echoic memory

A

-momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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11
Q

Selective attention

A
  • focused awareness onta a stimuli in sensory memory

- allows encoding into short-term memory (STM)

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12
Q

Automatic processing

A
  • unconscious encoding of info about time, space, frequency, or previously well-learned material
  • unconscious encoding does not interfere with thinking about other things
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13
Q

Parellel processing

A

-processing which involves several info streams simultaneously

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14
Q

Effortful processing

A

-encoding that requires conscious, focused attention and effort

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15
Q

Short-term memory (STM)

A
  • aka working memory
  • retains 7 (+/-) bits of info
  • retains info for approximately 30 seconds
  • integrates no info with current info/experience by: rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, & chunking
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16
Q

Rehearsal

A

-conscious repetition of info to maintain info in STM or to encode it for storage

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17
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

-repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories stored in LTM

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18
Q

Chunking

A
  • grouping information into meaningful units

- increases the capacity of STM

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19
Q

Long-term memory (LTM)

A
  • relatively permanent storage
  • unlimited capacity
  • subdivided into explicit memory and implicit memory
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20
Q

Explicit memory

A
  • aka declarative memory
  • memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows and can verbalize
  • subdivided in semantic and episodic memory
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21
Q

Semantic memory

A

-memory of general knowledge or objective facts

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22
Q

Episodic memory

A

-memory of personally experienced events

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23
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

-vivid memory of an emotionally charged event

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24
Q

Implicit memory

A
  • aka non-declarative memory
  • memory of skills or procedures
  • learned from experience without having to refer to the experience
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25
Q

Procedural memory

A
  • type of implicit memory of: perceptual abilities, motor skills, and cognitive skills
  • the experience that once you learn something you don’t think about how you learned it
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26
Q

Organization of info

A

-includes: hierarchies, concepts, prototypes, semantic networks, schemas, and connectionism

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27
Q

Hierarchies

A

-concepts are arranged from general to specific

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28
Q

Concepts

A

-mental representations of related things

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29
Q

Prototypes

A

-the most typical examples of a concept

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30
Q

Semantic networks

A

-multiple links from one concept to another

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31
Q

Schemas

A
  • framework of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events
  • based on past experience
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32
Q

Connectionism

A
  • theory that memories are units of info stored throughout the brain
  • memories are the result of interaction between the many units of info stored throughout the brain
  • examples include the Neural Network model and the Parallel Distributed model
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33
Q

Neural Network model

A

-memory formation, storage, and retrieval are the result of communication between neurons

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34
Q

Parallel Distributed model

A
  • neural networks interact to store memories

- memories are created by modifying the strength of the connections between neurons

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35
Q

Biology of Memory

A

-involves the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, and forebrain

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36
Q

Thalamus

A

-encodes sensory memory into STM

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37
Q

Hippocampus

A

-along with the frontal and temporal lobes, is involved with the establishing of explicit LTM

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38
Q

Amygdala

A

-proceses strong, emotionally charged memories

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39
Q

Cerebellum

A

-processes implicit memory of skills

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40
Q

Forebrain

A

-long-term potentiation (LTP)

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41
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

-the strengthening of synaptic connections which is the basis of memory

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42
Q

Retrieval

A

-process of getting info out of storage, putting together the pieces of our memory puzzle

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43
Q

Retrieval cue

A

-a trigger to get info from storage

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44
Q

Priming

A

-activating, consciously or unconsciously, specific associations in memory

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45
Q

Recognition

A

-identification of something as familiar

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46
Q

Recall

A

-retrieval of info from LTM without any other info or cues

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47
Q

Serial position effect

A

-stronger recollection of info at the beginning and the end of a list of words

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48
Q

Primacy effect

A

-stronger recollection of the beginning

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49
Q

Recency effect

A

-stronger recollection of the end

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50
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

-retrieval depends upon the match between the way info is encoded and the way it is retrieved

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51
Q

Context-dependent memory

A

-recollection an recall is stronger in the context in which it is learned

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52
Q

Mood-dependent memory

A

-tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

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53
Q

State-dependent memory

A

-tendency to recall info better when in the same internal state as hen the info was encoded

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54
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

-memory tricks/strategies that make info easier to remember

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55
Q

Method of loci

A
  • visualizes words in a list with familiar objects/locations

- aids in memorization

56
Q

Peg word system

A

-uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme

57
Q

Acronyms

A

?

58
Q

Retrieval failure

A

-when retrieval doesn’t really work

59
Q

Reconstruction

A
  • retrieval that distrust incomplete memories

- adds and/or changes info according to a personal schema

60
Q

Confabulation

A

-combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are tying to recall

61
Q

Misinformation effect

A

-incorporating misleading information into memories of a given event

62
Q

Tip-of-the-tounge phenomenon

A

-temporary inability to access info accompanied by a feeling that the info is in LTM

63
Q

Encoding failure

A
  • inability to transform sensory info into STM or LTM

- generally due to lack of attention

64
Q

Forgetting

A

-inability to retrieve previously stored info due to failure to encode, decay of stored memories, and/or inability to access stored memories

65
Q

Interference

A

-learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar

66
Q

Proactive interference

A

-process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer ones

67
Q

Retroactive interference

A

-process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories

68
Q

Repression

A

-tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind

69
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

-inability to create new LTM due to damage to the hippocampus

70
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

-memory loss associated with a traumatic event

71
Q

Intelligence

A

-the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

72
Q

“G” factor

A
  • theory developed by Charles Spearman
  • postulated that all mental performances could be encapsulated into a single, general (g) ability factor and a large number of narrower, task-specific factors
73
Q

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

A
  • concepts developed by Raymond Cattell
  • fluid involved ability to think in an abstract way (sometimes refers to ability to learn new ideas, sometimes involves creative thinking and problem-solving)
  • crystallized intelligence involves acquired knowledge and experiential knowledge
74
Q

Primary mental abilities

A
  • concepts developed by L.L. Thurston

- involves 7 factors which serve as measurements on some intelligence tests

75
Q

Triarchic

A
  • Theory of Intelligence formulated by Robert Sternberg
  • takes a more adaptive approach to intelligence
  • involves: analytical, creative, and practical
76
Q

Analytical

A

-ability to analyze and problem solve

77
Q

Creative

A
  • ability to develop novel ideas

- intuitive

78
Q

Practical

A
  • “street” smart

- adaptive intelligence

79
Q

Multiple intelligences

A
  • developed by Howard Gardner
  • humans possess different cognitive abilities, which underlie different notions of intelligence such as mathematical, linguistic, spatial, kinesthetic, music, interpersonal, or intrapersonal.
80
Q

Mathematical

A
  • logic
  • abstraction
  • reasoning
  • computation
  • critical thinking
81
Q

Linguistic

A
  • reading
  • writing
  • word memorization
  • verbalizing
82
Q

Spatial

A
  • spatial judgment

- mental visualization

83
Q

Kinesthetic

A
  • hand/eye coordination

- muscle coordination

84
Q

Musical

A

-sensitivity to sound, rhythm, tones, pitch, and timbre

85
Q

Interpersonal

A

-interaction with others

86
Q

Intrapersonal

A
  • self-reflection

- self-knowledge

87
Q

Binet-Simon Scale

A
  • one of the first intelligence tests
  • developed by Alfred Binet in response to the French government’s request to identify young children with learning disabilities
  • collaborated with Theodore Simon
88
Q

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test

A
  • developed by Lewis Terman (Stanford professor of education)
  • adapted Binet’s Scale
  • IQ = (ma/ca)100=?
89
Q

Wechsler Scales (WAIS)

A

-for adults and children

90
Q

Aptitude tests

A

-predicts capacity or potential to learn

91
Q

Achievement tests

A

-measures what has been learned

92
Q

Standardization

A
  • administration and scoring of a test in a consistent or “standard” manner
  • intended to ensure objectivity and reliability
93
Q

Reliability

A

-the extent to which a test measures something consistently

94
Q

Validity

A

-the extent to which a test measures what the test claims to measure

95
Q

Face

A
  • on the face of it

- a test appears to measure a topic

96
Q

Construct

A

-a test measures what is intended to be measured

97
Q

Content

A

-a test measures what has been covered in the topic

98
Q

Predictive/criterion

A

-a test positively correlates with future measurements

99
Q

Convergent

A

-a measurement correlates with other measures as predicted

100
Q

Metacognition

A

-thinking about how you think

101
Q

trial and error

A
  • repeatedly trying possible solutions

- discarding the failures in order to arrive at the correct solution

102
Q

Algorithm

A
  • step-by-step procedure

- guarantees a solution to certain problems

103
Q

Heuristic

A

-a mental shortcut to simplify quickly or to solve a problem but does not guarantee a correct solution

104
Q

insight learning

A

-a sudden appearance or awareness of a solution

105
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

-reasoning from general to specific

106
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

-reasoning from specific to general

107
Q

incubation

A
  • putting aside a problem temporarily

- allows a look at the problem from a different perspective

108
Q

brainstorming

A
  • generating lots of possible solutions to a problem

- often done in a group dynamic

109
Q

divergent thinking

A

-thinking that produces many alternatives/ideas

110
Q

convergent thinking

A

-problem-solving directed toward a single, correct solution

111
Q

Mental sets

A
  • barriers to problem solving
  • when we apply only methods that have worked in the past
  • lack of trying new methods
112
Q

Functional fixedness

A
  • inflexible thinking

- for example, not being able to recognize new uses fro an object because the common use is so familiar

113
Q

Availability heuristic

A

-tendency to estimate probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind

114
Q

Representative heuristic

A

-tendency to judge likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype

115
Q

Framing

A
  • the way an issue is stated

- can affect decisions an judgments

116
Q

Anchoring effect

A
  • tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point

- pulls responses toward that point

117
Q

Confirmation bias

A
  • tendency to notice/seek info that already supports preconceptions
  • to ignore info that refutes preconceived ideas
118
Q

Belief perservance

A

-tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belied has been discredited

119
Q

Belief bias

A
  • tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
  • makes illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid
120
Q

Hindsight bias

A

-tendency to report falsely, after an event, that we correctly predicted the outcome

121
Q

Overconfidence bias

A

-tendency to overestimate accuracy of beliefs/judgments

122
Q

Language

A

communication system based on words/grammar; involves speaking, writing, gestures, body language, and facial expressions, in a variety of combinations, to communicate knowledge and meaning

123
Q

Behavioral perspective

A

-language develops by imitating sounds

124
Q

Nativist perspective

A
  • humans have an innate capacity for acquiring language

- children are born with a universal sense of grammar

125
Q

Social interactivist perspective

A
  • babies are biologically equipped for learning language

- language acquisition may be enhanced, inhibited, or perverted by experience

126
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A
  • language guides and determines thinking

- langauge influences thought

127
Q

Babbling

A
  • infant’s spontaneous production of speech sounds

- begins around 4 months

128
Q

Phoneme

A

-smallest unit of sound in spokane language

129
Q

Morpheme

A

-smallest unit of language that has meaning

130
Q

Holophrase

A

-one-word utterances which convey meaning

131
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

-utterance of a noun and a verb

132
Q

Grammar

A
  • system of rules for language

- how words and sounds are combined to communicate

133
Q

Overgeneralization

A
  • literal application of grammatical rules

- lacks understanding of exceptions to grammatical rules

134
Q

Syntax

A

-the order by which words can be combined to communicate

135
Q

Semantics

A

-concerns the meaning of a word, phrase, and sentences including context, implications, and relationship to other words

AP Psychology (7 decks)

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