Chapter 3

Question 1

Empiricism

Answer 1

Sensory experience is considered to be the ultimate basis for knowledge

Question 2

Direct observation

Answer 2

Sense experience of the event itself

Question 3

Aided observation

Answer 3

Sense experience of the event itself with the help of a tool

Question 4

Indirect observation

Answer 4

Sense experience of the effect of an event, but not the event itself

Question 5

Theory dependence

Answer 5

An observation is theory dependent if it requires theoretical assumptions in order to make and justify observations

Question 6

Logical empiricism

Answer 6

Theories are created by inferences from fundamental observational statements

Question 7

Operationalization

Answer 7

To operationalize a property of interest is to provide a way of linking it to a directly observable effect through a correlational relationship or a hypothesised causal chain

Question 8

Property of interest

Answer 8

The property that is to be measured

Question 9

Hypothesized causal chain

Answer 9

The supposed link between the property of interest and what can be directly observed

Question 10

Operationalism

Answer 10

The view that all basic concepts are defined through their operations, by the way which we aim to measure them

Question 11

Comparability

Answer 11

A measure must be comparable to what is being observed

Question 12

Stability

Answer 12

A unit remains unchanged over time

Question 13

Ordinal scale

Answer 13

Orders objects according to a qualitative comparison with regard to a particular property

Question 14

Interval scale

Answer 14

Orders objects, but also quantifies the distance between them

Question 15

Ratio scale

Answer 15

Orders objects, quantifies the distance between them but also has zero point where zero represents an absence of the property

Question 16

Nominal scale

Answer 16

Classifies objects without ordering them

Question 17

Absolute scale

Answer 17

A scale where the units or the upper and lower bounds of the scale are “natural”

Question 18

Systematic error

Answer 18

Errors caused by specific factors that confound the measurement process. It is also called bias or inaccuracy

Question 19

Random error

Answer 19

Errors caused by the fluctuations of measurements due to factors that cannot or that for practical reasons will not be controlled

Question 20

Precise measurements

Answer 20

Measurements that do not suffer from random errors

Question 21

Systematic error

Answer 21

Errors caused by specific factors that confound the measurement process. It is also called bias or inaccuracy

Question 22

Accurate measurements

Answer 22

Measurements that do not suffer from systematic error

Question 23

Convergent validity

Answer 23

Convergent validity is achieved if several, differently operationalized in causally independent ways, measurement processes, all applied to the same target under the same conditions, give the same result

Question 24

Divergent validity

Answer 24

Divergent validity is achieved if an operationalization yields different results when measuring substantially different targets