Challenges to, and the fall of, the Facist State 1935-46

Question 1

What were Mussolini’s early foreign policies?

Answer 1

1) To achieve ‘Great Power’ status for Italy, making her an equal to Britain and France.
2) Promote facism and Italian prestige abroad, and gain colonial possessions.
3) Establish Italian dominance in the Mediterranean, the Adriatic Sea and the Balkans, especially in Albania.

Question 2

What did the Corfu incident show?

Answer 2

Mussolini was able to show Italy’s new aggressive foreign policy while also gaining 50 million lire. But it also showed that Italy could not gain equal great power status. International organisations could condone the threat of dictators like Mussolini.

Question 3

What happened in Corfu 1923?

Answer 3

An Italian general was assassinated in Greece when trying to establish a border between Greece and Albanian for the LoN. M ordered that Greece paid 50 million Lire. When Greece refuse he ordered the bombardment and occupation of Corfu. The LoN made Greece pay the money but also remove Italian troops from Corfu.

Question 4

What happened in the Balkans 1924-26?

Answer 4

Ahmed Zog took power in Albania in 1924 and Mussolini seized the opportunity to pressurise Yugo into accepting Italian influence in the Balkans. In 1926 Italy and Albania signed a Treaty of friendship which confirmed Albania’s position as an Italian satellite state.

Question 5

What were the Locarno Treaties 1925?

Answer 5

A conference of European powers was held at Locarno in an attempt to ease rising tensions in Europe. Germany’s western frontiers were confirmed, and the powers committed themselves to further work on their eastern frontiers. M was happy to work with them and Italy was presented as a major European power.

Question 6

What was the Kellog-Briand Pact?

Answer 6

Mussolini signed in 1928, it outlawed that war was a means of resolving conflict between powers. Nine powers signed the pact on 27 August and a further 56 nations signed it afterwards. Showed how M could work with other nations.

Question 7

How did Italy show they were supportive of Britain and France?

Answer 7

Italy remained a member of the LoN
Signed the Locarno Treaties
Signed the Kellogg Briand Pact
Agreed on colonial borders in North Africa

Question 8

What were early Italian relations like with the Nazis?

Answer 8

After H withdrew from the LoN, M called a Four Power Conference in Rome Between Italy, B, F and Germany. M said it was a great triumph but it ended with no resolution.
M was scared that H would seize the opportunity to annex Austria. When the Austrian chancellor was assassinated by Austrian Nazis, M sent 40,000 troops to the Austrian border to prevent Germany.

Question 9

What happened at the Stresa Front 1935?

Answer 9

After Hitler announced Germany was rearming, and breaking the ToV, M called a meeting with Britain and France. They all agreed they were against Hitler’s actions and reaffirmed their support for the Locarno Treaties in 1925.

Question 10

What was the impact of the Stresa Front?

Answer 10

It was the high point of Mussolini’s cooperation with the West.
It was vague, however, and did not include any specific commitments from any power.
No one was prepared to invade.
Britain undermined it by signing the Anglo-German Naval agreement in 1935.

Question 11

Why did Mussolini want to launch a campaign in Africa?

Answer 11

To satisfy Italian Nationalist and colonial ambitions and increase the regime’s popularity at home.
To provide facism with a major propaganda victory
Demonstrate that Italy was a huge power

Question 12

What was the Wal Wal incident?

Answer 12

1934, military incident in which 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed.
Mussolini used this to prepare for an invasion. He Built up his forces throughout the summer of 1935 and had 220,000 troops of the Abyssinian border.
LoN refused to help Abyssinia.

Question 13

What happened at the invasion of Abyssinia?

Answer 13

Ordered the invasion in October 1935
Adowa was captured on 6 October, the site of a humiliating defeat in 1896. After this, however, the advance was slow.
In 1936, Italy finally won the war with a massive military build up involving 600,000 troops and air power.

Question 14

Why was the invasion of Abyssinia good for Italy?

Answer 14

It was trumpeted as a huge Italian victory and resulted in growing popularity for Mussolini at home.

Question 15

What were the negative consequences of the Abyssinian war?

Answer 15

The economic cost of the war was huge. Led to the devaluation of the lira, and reduced Italy’s trade with Africa.
Garrisons were established which occupied a large number of troops.
Italy used mustard gas against Abyssinian civilians, which gave them a reputation for brutality.

Question 16

What was the impact of the Abyssinian campaign on relations with France and Britain?

Answer 16

Tensions grew. They did not want to push Italy to Nazi Germany but recognised they needed to prevent further aggression.
The Hoare-Laval Pact of December 1935 stated that Italy could retain most of Abyssinia but a smaller independent nation would be established. This was rejected by Mussolini and condemned by Britain and France. Relations were damaged beyond repair after this.

Question 16

Who did Mussolini decide to support in the Spanish civil war and why?

Answer 16

Mussolini decided to support General Franco, a Facist, who was against supporters of the Spanish Second Republic. This was partly due to France supporting the Republic and Mussolini wanted to gain more influence in the Med.

Question 17

How did Mussolini support the Facists in Spain?

Answer 17

He provided air and artillery support for Franco, who defeated the Republicans in March 1939. German and Italian support was key to this.
Britain and France did not provide the same level of support to the Republicans and declared neutrality.
Italy and Germany argued they they were preventing the rise of Socialism in Europe as the USSR was supporting the Republicans.

Question 18

What was the impact of the Spanish civil war?

Answer 18

Public opinion in the West turned against Italy.
Mussolini’s relationship with Hitler and Franco damaged relations with B and F.
Strengthened position of Italy and Germany and weakened B and F.
However, brought many financial issues to Italy who was involved in the conflict for much longer than expected.

Question 19

What was the impact of the Anschluss in 1938?

Answer 19

Mussolini agreement to the Anschluss led to him losing popularity in Italy, despite it being obvious that he could not prevent it.
Also led to Mussolini becoming the weaker partner in his relationship with Hitler.

Question 20

What were the three main reasons why Mussolini and Hitler became closer?

Answer 20

The worsening relations between Italy, Britain and France and the breakdown of the Stresa Front.
The Italian economy became more dependent on Germany from 1936.
By the end of the 1930s, M was becoming more impressed by Hitler’s personality.

Question 21

What was the Anti-Comintern Pact?

Answer 21

Nov 1937, Italy, Germany and Japan signed it driven by their hatred of Communism. They would become known as the Axis Powers and made a formal alliance between I and G more likely.

Question 22

When did Italy invade Albania and what was the impact of it?

Answer 22

March 1939, Italy quickly defeated the small Albanian force. As a result, Britain and France guaranteed military support to Greece and Turker, giving Mussolini the need to draw even closer to Germany.

Question 23

What were the domestic tensions that rose out of the alliance with Germany?

Answer 23

The introduction of anti-Semitic laws and the possibility of war appalled the Italian elites and some Fascists.
Anti-German feeling was reported among all social classes.
Mussolini was remained relatively popular but criticism of the Fascist regime was increasing.

Question 24

What was the Pact of Steel?

Answer 24

Signed in 1939 between Italy and Germany and committed them to support each other in war even if they had started it.
Germany needed it for their invasion of Poland in 1939.
It meant that British and French forces would remain in the Med instead of fighting in Germany.

Question 25

Why was the Pact of Steel bad for Italy?

Answer 25

Effectively Italy was committed to following Hitler’s foreign policy.
After signing the pact, Mussolini send Hitler message saying that Italy did not want to enter a war for at least three years. Hitler ignored this and invaded Poland anyway.

Question 26

Why did Italy remain neutral until June 1940?

Answer 26

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the USSR. Mussolini saw this as a betrayal of the Pact against Communism.
Mussolini was playing a waiting game - he did not want to commit to the losing side of the war.
Italy was not ready for a war, modernisation processes were incomplete.

Question 27

Why did Mussolini decide to enter the war in 1940?

Answer 27

He feared Italy becoming a second-rate nation in a Europe dominated by Germany.
Believed a war would glorify fascism.
Had to follow his propaganda image.
It appeared that the Allies were close to defeat and Mussolini wanted territorial gains.

Question 28

How did Italy fail in France in 1940?

Answer 28

France declared an armistice with Germany, and Italy launched an offensive along the Alpine front but only gained a few miles before being stalled by French troops.
Mussolini hoped to make territorial gains in France but was not invited to the armistice and only received two small towns.

Question 29

How did Italy fail in North Africa during WW2?

Answer 29

M wanted to make gains after the French incident so attacked British Somaliland against the advise of his generals. Troops were also sent to Egypt and towards the Suez-canal in September 1940.
This inevitably prompted a counter attack which was devastating to Italian forces. By April 1941, Britain took Libya and Abyssinia. 125,000 Italian troops were taken prisoner and German forces were sent to retrieve the situation.
Despite this, the Axis Powers were on the retreat in North Africa inn 1942 and surrendered in 1943 paving the way for an Allied invasion of Sicily.

Question 30

What were the Italian failures in the Mediterranean during the war?

Answer 30

They were reluctant to take Gibraltar, an important choke point for Britain, despite British land forces being ejected from Europe in 1940.
Malta posed a constant threat of a close blockade of southern Italy by British naval and air bases. Italian forces had not had enough training to launch an amphibious attack on the island. Malta also threatened supply lines through Libya.
In 1940, Mussolini refused Hitler’s offer of the French colony of Tunisia, fearing that Italy would be dragged into a prolonged campaign by the French colonial authorities.

Question 31

What was the ultimatum that Mussolini gave Greece in 1940?

Answer 31

To grant Italy the right to occupy areas of Greece in exchange for Italian neutrality. Greece rejected, and 70,000 Italian troops invaded Greece from Albania.

Question 32

How did the invasion of Greece go for Italy?

Answer 32

Did not proceed as planned. Expected to last two weeks but the army was too small and poorly led. While the Greek army was small it was determined and knew the territory well.
Many Italians surrendered and the Greeks pushed them back into Albania. A Spring offensive made little progress and the British navy inflicted another crushing defeat at Cape Matapan.

Question 33

What was the impact of the failure in Greece?

Answer 33

Made Italy the laughing stock around Europe and drew Hitler’s disapproval. In Spring 1941, Germany invaded and took over Greece and Yugoslavia.
The Balkan coast was under German control and Italy was once again the junior partner once again in the Axis alliance.

Question 34

Why was Italy not ready for war in 1940?

Answer 34

Their economy was not geared towards was production. It’s proportion of GDP directed towards war production never exceeded 25%, Germany’s was 64%. As a result, weapons, clothing and food were in short supply so they could be defeated easily.

Question 35

How reliant was Italy on Germany?

Answer 35

Depended almost entirely on Germany for coal due to a shortage of oil imports. Germany could only send 1 million tonnes of coal per month, and many Italian factories lacked basic raw materials. This led to a poor rate of weapon and ammunition production. By 1942, a better arms production was achieved but this was destroyed due to bombing.

Question 36

What were Italy’s main military weaknesses?

Answer 36

Command structures - not clear below Mussolini.
Mussolini - little experience of war and made bad decisions.
Training - outdated and made obsolete.
Lack of strategy.
Poor morale - used to losing by 1941 and unenthusiastic.
Equipment - same as WW1 and only enough to arm half of the units.
Supplies - rations were low and clothing supplied was worse than WW1

Question 37

What were the domestic causes of political tensions in 1943?

Answer 37

Allied bombing took their tole on morale. The gov restricted an evacuation allowance to heads of families only causing 100,000 workers to go on strike for a week.
Declining living standards made Catholics, Socialists and supporters of democracy gain support.
People began to listen to the news from trusted sources such as Britain’s world service.

Question 38

How did World War Two add to political tensions?

Answer 38

Returning soldiers with tuberculosis brought news about the conditions of the front line.
Loss of 200,000 Italian soldiers at Stalingrad infuriated Italians who saw it as Germany’s war.
Many Italians opposed the brutal methods used by the Germans in Greece and Yugoslavia.

Question 39

What were the causes of Mussolini being deposed?

Answer 39

King Victor Emmanuel was pressurised into action by frustrated German generals.
Opposition to Mussolini from the Fascist Grand Council who had been selected for their loyaly. Dino Grandi led the movement to remove Mussolini who won the vote 19 to 7.
The King made Badoglio and Mussolini was arrested and taken away as prisoner.

Question 40

What was the Republic of Salo?

Answer 40

After Mussolini’s rescue, the Germans placed him in charge of a small state in northern Italy. Hitler would not let M establish a central government in Milan due to fears he would threaten German interests in Italy.

Question 41

How was the Republic of Salo ruled?

Answer 41

Mussolini was both Head of State and Foreign minister, and refused to recognise the authority of the Italian King.
They had an army, navy and air force which fought alongside the Germans with around 50,000 men. Fear and oppression was used to encourage participation. There was a Fascist police force and militia who played a key role in fighting partisans.

Question 42

Why was the Republic of Salo limited?

Answer 42

Many Italians had lost faith in the Fascist cause and Mussolini.
The republic heavily depended on German support.
Mussolini was treated as a puppet leader by the Germans.
Mussolini had lost his charisma and was suffering from ill health
By 1944, the partisans posed a serious threat to German forces and the Salo Republic.

Question 43

What was the Italian government in the south after the Allied invasion?

Answer 43

The provisional government controlled Sardinia and four south-eastern provinces.
They had minimal influence even after the armistice in Sept 1943.
It barely had an army. It was initially led by Badoglio but he was removed due to him being seen as too close to the Fascists.
Fighting in Italy was slow and bitter with many Italians having to live in terrible conditions. This made many Italians less supportive of the Allies.
Gradually politics in the south returned to normal with the Catholics, Socialists and Liberals coming together to form a government.

Question 44

Who were Italian partisans?

Answer 44

Resistance groups throughout northern and much of central Italy after Sept 1943.
Many were former soldiers cut off from home and still in possession of their weapons, while others did not want to be conscripted by Mussolini.
They specialised in surprise attacks, sabotage, seizure of goods and political assassinations.
The communists led the largest group of partisans, numbering at least 50,000 in 1944.

Question 45

What happened at the 1946 referendum?

Answer 45

King Victor Emmanuel was unable to regain his authority and he abdicated in April 1946. He hoped his son would be able to revive support for the monarchy in time for the referendum.
However, the Italians voted 52% to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. But opinion was not spread throughout the country, the north wanted a republic while the south supported the monarchy.
A new democratic system was introduced based upon proportional representation.

Question 46

What were the results of the 1946 elections?

Answer 46

Christian Democrats - 35% and 207 seats
Communists - 102 seats
Socialists - 115 seats
Liberals - 41 seats
the three main parties made up a government alongside the new republican party which had 23 seats.

Question 47

What was the structure of the new Italian government?

Answer 47

The senate was to be elected, the president was a largely symbolic figure and the prime minister was elected mainly by parliament.
Government was to be a cabinet of ministers which would be responsible for parliament. This gov was anti-fascist by construction and definition. It was a weak government that would not be able to repeat the Fascist years.

Question 48

What was the overall impact of WW2 on Italy

Answer 48

WW2 had a horrendous impact on Italy but it paved the way for the collapse of fascism and the emergence of democracy.